EFFECTIVE FARMING 

SAMPSON 




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0OPXRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



EFFECTIVE FARMING 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



EFFECTIVE FARMING 

A TEXT-BOOK 

FOR 

AMERICAN SCHOOLS 



BY 
H. O. SAMPSON, B.Sc, B.S.A. 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE AT THE WINTHROP NORMAL AND 

INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE, ROCK HILL, S. C. ; FORMERLY 

ASSISTANT IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT 

OF AGRICULTURE 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1918 

All rights reserved 



^.,r^^ - ■ 






Copyright, 1918, 



By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1918. 



m 21 1918 



/ 



Nortnooli ^tfss 

J, S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



1^ 



0)CU503l7t'^-' 



PREFACE 

As early as 1824 a text-book of agriculture was published in 
the United States. This book was an agricultural reader, by 
Daniel Adams. In 1837 a ''Farmer's School Book," by Orville 
Taylor, was published at Albany and Ithaca, N. Y. For one 
hundred years there has been pressure for the introduction of 
agriculture into schools. The subject has waited, however, 
for many reasons. The industrial development of the middle 
of the last century undoubtedly obscured the importance of 
agriculture. The colleges of agriculture were expected to 
satisfy much of the demand. In the later years of the last 
century the profits in farming were difficult and small. Schools 
have been unadapted to teaching in agriculture. 

Now, however, the way has opened. A national law of vast 
significance (The Smith-Hughes Act) has provided the means 
for redirecting the schools and providing instruction in agricul- 
ture and home-making. Many schools have learned to teach 
these subjects. It is admitted by all that the vocational 
subjects dealing with land and its produce are essential to any 
school system that would help maintain the best kind of civiliza- 
tion. Our first duty is to care for the earth. If we cannot 
produce our supplies for food and clothing, all the other elements 
of society perish. A text-book of agriculture, therefore, deals 
not only with an interesting set of subjects but it also strikes 
at the foundations of human institutions. 

No longer shall we feed ourselves by chance or by foraging ; 
the time is rapidly passing when we may longer till the earth 
carelessly or ignorantly. All the people demand that the 
farmer shall be intelligent, alert, and resourceful, providing a 
proper support for society. We cannot live on the past. We 



vi Preface 

must apply the best knowledge and the shrewdest skill to the 
soil. 

To meet the new demands, many texts are appearing. The 
present book is one of the contributions to this rapidly enlarging 
field, drawn from several years' experience as a teacher of 
agriculture in both high school and college. It aims to present 
instruction in practical agriculture in such a way as to be read- 
ily understood by both pupil and general reader, and to be 
directly adaptable, at the same time, to the needs of the class- 
room and laboratory. 

Agriculture is a subject of great variety. One person cannot 
cover it all. As indicated in certain parts of the text, some of 
the matter has been compiled from publications of the United 
States Department of Agriculture and the state experiment 
stations. This form of compilation suggests the kind of valuable 
information that can be gleaned from these publications. Too 
few teachers realize the great extent of practical teaching- 
material in these bulletins and circulars. 

In writing a text-book, an author must now call on many 
persons. Appreciation is expressed to the following individuals, 
public departments, and firms for aid and for criticism of the 
manuscript and for many of the photographs used in making the 
illustrations : L. H. Bailey, C. H. Lane, E. A. Miller, F. E. Heald, 
W. R. Barrows, M. A. Carleton, Joseph A. Arnold, C. C. Cleve- 
land, A. E. Young, J. E. McChntock, O. C. Peck, G. E. Stayner, 
P. G. Holden, M. A. Blake, M. B. Waite, John W. Roberts, 
J. F. Jackson, H. K. Bush-Brown, Charles Gray, J. W. Clise, 
S. C. Hallock, M. V. Richards ; the United States Department 
of Agriculture, Ohio State University, the experiment stations 
of Iowa, Illinois, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Ohio; Cut- 
away Harrow Company, Emerson-Brantingham Implement 
Co., International Harvester Co., The Avery Co., Southern 
Railway, Central of Georgia Railway, Janes ville Plow Co., 
Aspinwall Manufacturing Co., The Deming Co., Thoroughbred 
Record, Arabian Horse Club, Acme Harrow Co., Moline Plow 



Preface vii 

Co., American Yorkshire Club, The Country Gentleman, 
American Jersey Cattle Club, American Guernsey Cattle Club, 
American Aberdeen- Angus Breeders' Association. Aid from 
these sources has done much toward making the book more 
accurate, and more worth while to both pupil and teacher. 

I desire, also, to express my appreciation of help rendered 
by several friends who have read proof sheets of certain of the 
chapters. Professor W. H. Stevenson, of the Iowa State 
College, the chapters dealing with soils ; Dr. C. W. Larson, of 
the Federal Dairy Division, the chapters on dairy cattle and 
dairying; Professor R. S. Curtis, of the North Carolina 
Agricultural Experiment Station, the chapters dealing with 
live-stock; Alice V. Wilson, of the East Carolina Teachers' 
Training School, and Mary Stuart MacDougall, of the Winthrop 
Normal and Industrial College of South Carolina, the chapter 
on plant study; and my assistant, Professor Thomas B. 
Meadows, all of the chapters. 

H. O. SAMPSON. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

PAGES 

General View 1-4 

Agriculture fundamental, 1 — Agriculture as art, 
science, and business, 2 — Divisions of agriculture, 3 

— Farm possibilities, 4. 

CHAPTER II 

Plant Study 5-29 

Elements and compounds, 6 — Classes of compounds 
in plants, 6 — Structure and functions of plant parts, 8 

— Propagation by spores, 12 — ^Propagation by seeds, 
12 — Propagation of field, vegetable, and greenhouse 
crops by division, 15 — Propagation of fruit plants by 
division, 17 — Questions, 26 — Exercises, 27 — Ref- 
erences, 29. 

CHAPTER III 

Soils 30-54 

Constituents of soil, 31 — Formation of soil, 32 — 
Classification of soil according to mode of formation, 
32 — Classification of soil according to texture, 34 — 
Classification of soil according to rainfall, 36 — Heavy 
and light soils, 33 — Structure of soil, 36 — Functions 
of water in soil, 38 — Forms of water in soil, 39 — Con- 
trol of soil-water by cropping methods, 41 — Irrigation, 
44 — Soil drainage, 46 — Air in soil, 48 — Bacteria in soil, 
49 — Questions, 51 — Exercises, 52 — References, 53. 

CHAPTER IV 

Soil Fertility 55-78 

The food elements of plants, 56 — Use of green- 
manure crops, 61 — Crops used for green-manure, 62 — 
Importance of farm manure, 67 — Kinds of farm 

ix 



Table of Contents 



manure, 68 — Composition and character of farm 
manure, 69 — Methods of handling manure, 74 — Meth- 
ods of applying manure, 77 — Questions, 78 — ■ Exercises, 
78 — References, 78. 

CHAPTER V 

Soil Fertility (Continued) . . . . . 

Use and misuse of fertilizers, 80 — Nitrogenous 
fertilizers, 82 — Phosphatic fertilizers, 84 — Potassic 
fertilizers, 86 — Effects of the different plant-foods on 
vegetation, 87 — Purchasing of fertilizers, 88 — Fer- 
tilizer laws, 88 — Fertilizer equivalents, 90 — Home- 
mixed fertilizers, 90 — Uses of hme, 93 — Forms of 
lime, 95 — Quantity of lime to apply, 96 — Questions, 
97 — Exercises, 97 — References, 97. 



79-97 



CHAPTER VI 

Indian Corn, or Maize 

Corn-producing localities, 99 — Types of corn, 100 
— Uses of corn, 103 — Selection of variety of corn for 
planting, 103 — Selection and care of seed corn, 104 — 
Testing seed corn for germination, 107 — Soils and cli- 
mate for corn, 112 — Enriching soils for corn, 112 — 
Preparation of land for corn, 112 — Planting the seed, 
113 — Cultivating the fields, 116 — Harvesting the 
crop, 117 — Pests of corn, 120 — Questions, 125 — Ex- 
ercises, 125 — References, 129. 



98-129 



CHAPTER VII 

Small Grains ......... 

Distribution and characteristics of wheat, 132 — 
Kinds of wheat, 133 — Uses of wheat, 135 — Soils for 
wheat, 135 — Seeding of wheat, 136 — Harvesting of 
wheat, 139 — Weeds of wheat fields, 142 — Insects of 
wheat fields, 143 — Fungous diseases of wheat, 143 — 
Distribution, yields, and characteristics of oats, 147 — 
Kinds of oats, 148 — Uses of oats, 148 — Climate and 
soils for oats, 149 — Preparing the ground for oats, 
149 — Planting oat seed, 149 — Harvesting of oats, 150 



130-160 



Table of Contents xi 



— Enemies of oats, 150 — Distribution and character- 
istics of rye, 151 — Uses of rye, 151 — Climate and 
soils for rye, 152 — ■ Planting rye seed, 152 — Harvest- 
ing of rye, 152 — Enemies of rye, 152 — Distribution 
and characteristics of barley, 153 — Uses of barley, 
153 — Climate and soils for barley, 154 — Planting 
barley seed, 154 — Harvesting of barley, 154 — Enemies 
of barley, 155 — Distribution and characteristics of 
rice, 155 — Uses of rice, 155 — Climate and soils for 
rice, 156 — Cultural methods for rice, 156 — Distribu- 
tion and characteristics of buckwheat, 157 — Cultural 
methods for buckwheat, 158 — Questions, 158 — Ex- 
ercises, 159 — References, 160. 



CHAPTER VIII 

Grasses and Sorghums ....... 161-181 

Characteristics of grasses, 162 — Number of grasses 
cultivated for hay and pasture, 163 — Uses of grasses, 
163 — Soils for grasses, 163 — Purchasing and planting 
grass seed, 164 — Harvesting grass crops for hay, 164 
— Grasses for hay and pasture, 168 — Description of 
sorghums, 174 — Broom corn, 174 — Saccharine sor- 
ghums, 175 — Non-saccharine sorghums, 177 — Ques- 
tions, 178 — Exercises, 179 — References, 181. 



CHAPTER IX 

Legumes 182-199 

Description of legumes, 182 — Uses of legumes, 183 
— Legumes for forage, 184 — Questions, 197 — Exercises, 
198 — References, 199. 



CHAPTER. X 

Potatoes 200-215 

Distribution of white potato production, 201 — 
Yields of white potatoes, 201 — Climate and soils for 
white potatoes, 201 — Fertilizing the land, 202 — 
Planting white potatoes, 202 — Cultivating potato 



Xll 



Table of Contents 



fields, 203 — Harvesting and storing, 205 — Insect 
pests of white potatoes, 205 — Diseases of white po- 
tatoes, 206 — Distribution and use of sweet potatoes, 
207 — Soils for sweet potatoes, 208 — Fertilizing the 
land, 208 — Cultural methods, 208 — Harvesting and 
storing, 211 — Pests of the sweet potato, 213 — Ques- 
tions, 213 — Exercises, 214 — References, 215. 



CHAPTER XI 

Sugar-cane, Cotton, and Tobacco .... 

Distribution and characteristics of sugar-cane, 217 — 
Uses of sugar-cane, 219 — Soils and fertilizers, 219 ^ 
Cultural methods for sugar-cane, 220 — Harvesting of 
sugar-cane, 221 — Pests of sugar-cane, 222 — The cotton 
plant, 222 — Types of cotton, 224 — Uses of cotton, 
225 — Soils and fertiUzers, 226 — Rotations with cot- 
ton, 227 — Cultural methods for cotton, 228 — Harvest- 
ing of cotton, 230 — Pests of cotton, 230 — Tobacco- 
growing districts, 233 — Classes of tobacco, 233 — 
Methods of securing tobacco seedlings, 234 — - Cultural 
methods for tobacco, 234 — ■ Harvesting and curing of 
tobacco, 235 — Questions, 237 — Exercises, 237 — Ref- 
erences, 240. 



216-240 



CHAPTER XII 

Fruit-growing 241-276 

Classification of fruits, 242 — Soils for fruit, 242 — 
Air drainage in fruit-culture, 243 — Pruning of fruit- 
trees, 243 — Spraying of fruit-trees, 246 — Spray 
schedules, 250 — Cultural methods, 255 — Harvesting 
of fruit, 260 — Pests of fruit plants, 261 — Questions, 
271 — Exercises, 271 — References, 275. 



Vegetable-growing . 
Market-gardening 
for vegetables, 278 - 



CHAPTER XIII 

and truck-farming, 278 — Soils 
- Kinds of vegetable crops, 279 — 



277-286 



Table of Contents xiii 

PAGES 

The farm-garden, 280 — Planting-table for vegetables, 
282 — Questions, 283 — Exercises, 283 — References, 
286. 

CHAPTER XIV 

Feeding Farm Animals 287-298 

Importance of animal feeding, 287 — Functions of 
feed, 288 — Balanced rations, 289 — Kinds of feeds, 
290 — Palatability of feed, 294 — Effect of feed on the 
digestion, 295 — Cost of feed, 295 — Suiting the feed 
to the animal, 295 — Digestibility of feed, 295 — 
Questions, 297 — References, 298. 



CHAPTER XV 

Horses 299-333 

Types, 300 — The draft breeds, 303 — The heavy- 
harness breeds, 307 — The light-harness breed, 310 — 
The saddle-horse breeds, 311 — Ponies, 314 — Market 
classes of horses and mules, 315 — Breaking p.nd train- 
ing colts, 317 — Feeds for horses, 321 — Time to water 
horses, 321 — Soundness in horses, 323 — Determining 
age of horses, 324 — Questions, 326 — Exercises, 327 — 
References, 333. 

CHAPTER XVI 

Beef and Dual-purpose Cattle ..... 334-351 
Types of cattle, 334 — - Conformation of beef animals, 
335 — Conformation of dual-purpose animals, 337 — 
Breeds of beef cattle, 337 — Breeds of dual-purpose 
cattle, 342 — Market classes and grades of beef cattle, 
344 — Feeding of beef cattle, 346 — - Rations for beef 
cattle, 346 — Questions, 348 — Exercises, 349 — Ref- 
erences, 351. 

CHAPTER XVII 

Dairy Cattle 352-374 

Conformation of dairy cows, 353 — Breeds of dairy 
cattle, 354 — The dairy calf, 359 — Feeding dairy cows 



XIV 



Table of Contents 



in summer, 362 — Feeding dairy cows in winter, 363 — 
Water and salt for cows, 368 — Stables for dairy cows, 
369 — Questions, 371 — Exercises, 371 — References, 
373. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

Dairying 

Composition of milk, 375 — Testing of milk for fat, 
377 — Separation of cream from milk, 382 — Bacteria 
in milk, 382 — Production of sanitary milk, 383 — 
Pasteurization of milk, 385 — Questions, 386 — 
Exercises, 386 — References, 390. 



375-390 



CHAPTER XIX 

Sheep ........... 

Classes of sheep, 392 — Middle-wool breeds, 392 — 
Long-wool breeds, 398 — Fine-wool breeds, 399 — 
Feeds for sheep, 401 — Importance of shepherd dogs, 
402 — Sheep-killing dogs, 402 — Catching, holding, 
and leading of sheep, 403 — Questions, 404 — Ex- 
ercises, 404 — References, 406. 



391-406 



CHAPTER XX 

Swine 

Lard-type swine, 407 — Bacon-type swine, 412 — 
Regions for hog-raising, 413 — Feeds for swine, 414 — 
Sanitation in the hog lot, 414 — Hog cholera, 415 — 
Mineral matter and tonic for hogs, 420 — Questions, 
421 — Exercises, 421 — References, 424. 



407-424 



CHAPTER XXI 



Poultry 

Types of poultry, 426 — Breeds of chickens, 430 
Poultry houses, 432 — Natural incubation, 432 



425-442 



Table of Contents 



XV 



Natural brooding, 435 — Artificial incubation, 437 — 
Artificial brooding, 438 — Feeding for egg production, 
438 — Feeding for meat production, 440 — Questions, 
440 — Exercises, 442 — References, 442. 



CHAPTER XXII 

Farm Machinery 

Lack of care of farm machinery, 444 — Plows, 445 — 
Harrows, 449 — Cultivators, 452 — Weeders, 454 — 
Planting implements, 454 — Hay-harvesting machin- 
ery, 456 — Small-grain, corn, and potato harvesters, 
457 — Threshing machines, 457 — Farm tractors, 458 — 
Questions, 460 — Exercises, 460 — References, 460. 



443-460 



CHAPTER XXIII 

Farm Management ........ 

The scope of farm management, 461 — Farming as 
an occupation, 462 — Choice of a region for farming, 
462 — Choice of the type of farming, 462 — Choice of 
the farm, 462 — Farm tenancy, 463 — Laying out the 
fields, 463 — Kind of farm equipment, 463 — Farm 
labor, 464 — Planning a cropping system, 465 — 
Farm accounts, 465 — Farm records, 466 — The 
marketing of farm products, 466 — Questions, 467 — 
Exercises, 467 — References, 470. 



461-470 



APPENDIX 

Directory of the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
Addresses of the State Experiment Stations 
The Publications of the Department of Agriculture 
Publishers of Agricultural Books 



471 
472 
473 
476 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



* Effective Farming " ....... Frontispiece 

FIG. PAGE 

1. A sprouted bean 13 

2. Cross-section of a germinating maize kernel ... 14 

3. Parts of the white potato plant . . . . .16 

4. Cutting of coleus ........ 17 

5. Simple cuttings of the grape 18 

6. Mallet and heel cuttings of the currant .... 19 

7. Whip grafting 21 

8. Cleft grafting 22 

9. Bud stick 24 

10. Cutting the bud 24 

11. Preparing the stock and inserting the bud .. . .24 

12. A budded nursery tree 25 

13. A practical seed-tester for small seeds .... 27 

14. Parts of a sprouted maize kernel ..... 27 

15. The plow is an efficient agent for pulverizing the soil . 38 

16. A badly washed field ....... 41 

17. Vegetables grown under irrigation 45 

18. Furrow irrigation in a California citrus grove ... 46 

19. An open drainage ditch in muck soil in New Jersey . . 47 

20. Cowpea root showing tubercles ...... 50 

21. Apparatus for soil exercises with water .... 52 

22. Benefits of green-manuring ...... 63 

23. Beneficial effect of barnyard manure .... 68 

24. A lantern slide that tells a story of waste on American 

farms .......... 73 

25. The wrong way to store manure, piling it by the roadside . 74 

26. Home-made tank wagon-box for hauling fresh manure to 

the fields 75 

27. The wrong kind of barnyard 76 

28. A manure-spreader means a saving of labor and evenness 

of distribution of the manure 77 

29. Effect of commercial fertilizer 81 

30. Dent corn 100 

xvii 



xviii List of Illustrations 



FIG. PAGE 

31. Flint corn . 101 

32. White rice pop-corn 102 

33. Sweet corn 102 

34. Seed corn strung with binder twine ..... 106 

35. Seed corn on racks made from wire fencing . . . 107 

36. Seed corn tested in the sawdust box tester . . . 108 

37. Kernels of seed corn sprouted in the sawdust box tester . 109 

38. The rag-doll seed corn tester 110 

39. A two-row corn-planter arranged with wire to drop kernels 

into hills 115 

40. A corn-cultivator equipped with smaU shovels . . .116 

41. A corn-binder with bundle elevator . , . . .117 

42. Husking corn from the shock . . . . . .118 

43. Filling the silo 119 

44. Corn-smut 124 

45. Heads of beardless winter wheat ..... 133 

46. Heads of bearded winter wheat ..... 134 

47. Heads of German emmer, spelt, and einkorn . . . 135 

48. Grain-drill 136 

49. Grain-binders in a wheat field 137 

50. A field of wheat in shock . . . . . . . 138 

51. Self -rake reaper ........ 139 

52. A threshing scene 141 

53. Loose smut of wheat ....... 144 

54. Stinking smut of wheat . . . . . . . 145 

55. Spreading oats and side oats 148 

56. Mowers in a hayfield ....... 165 

57. A hay field . 166 

58. Loading hay by hand 166 

59. Loading hay with a hay loader 167 

60. A sweep-rake bringing the hay to the stacker . . . 167 

61. Stacking hay . . . 168 

62. Timothy 169 

63. Kentucky blue-grass 169 

64. Canada blue-grass 170 

65. Redtop • • -170 

66. Orchard grass ......••• 171 

67. Italian rye-grass 171 

68. Meadow-fescue 172 

69. Tall oat-grass 172 

70. Brome-grass 173 



List of Illustrations 



XIX 



pia. 

71. Bermuda-grass .... 

72. Head of broom-corn . 

73. Amber sorghum 

74. Orange sorghum 

75. Heads of four varieties of kafir . 

76. Case for storing bottles of seeds 

77. Red clover 

78. Crimson clover . 

79. Alfalfa 

80. An alfalfa field . 

81. Spotted bur clover 

82. Toothed bur clover 

83. Cowpeas . 

84. Soybeans . 

85. Base of peanut plant showing the nuts 

86. Virginia Bunch peanuts 

87. Method of stacking peanut vines 

88. Potato-planter .... 

89. Green Mountain potatoes . 

90. Potato-digger .... 

91. Sweet potato slips ready for setting in the field 

92. Sweet potato slips in a hot-bed ready to pull for 

planting ...... 

93. Setting sweet potato slip^ with a transplanter 

94. Field of sugar-cane ..... 

95. Cotton plant 

96. Cotton in the boll 

97. Field of tobacco . . . . . 

98. Harvesting tobacco by cutting the stalk . 

99. Peach tree in need of pruning . 

100. Same tree as shown in Fig. 99 after pruning 

101. Sprayed trees 

102. Unsprayed trees 

103. Gas-engine sprayer 

104. Hand-power sprayer 

105. Knapsack sprayer 

106. Rectangular, quincunx, and triangular systems 

orchard trees 

107. Nursery trees trimmed for planting 

108. Sorting table lined with canvas . 

109. Fumigating citrus trees 



trans 



of setting 



XX List of Illustrations 

FIG. PAGE 

110. San Jose scale on twig (enlarged) . „ . . . 263 

111. Codlin-moth larva in apple ...... 264 

112. Young apples that have been infested with the first brood 

of codlin-moth ........ 265 

113. Nest and larvsB of apple-tree tent-caterpillar in crotch of 

wild cherry tree ........ 266 

114. Adult curculios on a young peach (enlarged) . . . 267 

115. The peach borer 268 

116. Mummies of brown rot of peach ..... 270 

117. Apparatus for determining the specific gravity of lime 

sulfur solution ........ 273 

118. Points of the horse 301 

119. Percheron stallion ........ 304 

120. Clydesdale stallion 304 

121. Shire stallion .305 

122. Belgian mare 306 

123. Suffolk stallion 307 

124. Irving model, 1090. A Hackney pony stallion . . . 308 

125. German Coach stallion ....... 309 

126. Standard-bred horse . . . . . . . .311 

127. Thoroughbred horse . .312 

128. American saddle-horse 312 

129. Arabian stallion 313 

130. Points of beef cattle, side view 335 

131. Points of beef cattle, front and rear view .... 336 

132. A prime steer 336 

133. Cuts of beef 337 

134. Shorthorn bull . 337 

135. Polled Durham bull 338 

136. Hereford cow 339 

137. Aberdeen-Angus cow . . . . . .■ . 341 

138. Galloway bull . . . .341 

139. Dual-purpose Shorthorns 342 

140. Red Poll cow 343 

141. Dairy cow, showing wedge-shape form, side view . . 353 

142. Points of the dairy cow 354 

143. Jersey cow, Eminent's Bess, 209,719 . . . .355 

144. Guernsey cow, Johanna Chene, 30,889 .... 356 

145. Holstein-Friesian cow, Dutchess Skylark Ormsby, 124,513 357 

146. Prize-winning Ayrshire cows ...... 358 

147. Dairy barn plentifully supplied with windows . . . 369 



List of Illustrations xxi 



riG. 



148. A modern sanitary dairy barn ...... 370 

149. A four-bottle hand power tester ..... 376 

150. A type of steam tester ....... 376 

151. Type of Babcock test bottle 377 

152. Types of Babcock cream test bottles .... 377 

153. Pipette used in measuring milk in the Babcock test . . 378 

154. Simple acid graduate ....... 378 

155. A dipper used in measuring acid in the Babcock test . 379 

156. Burette for measuring acid in the Babcock test . . 379 

157. A combined bottle and acid measure .... 379 

158. Type of knife-edge cream balance ..... 380 

159. The right way of adding milk to the test bottle . . 380 

160. The wrong way of adding milk to the test bottle . . 380 

161. Method of reading fat column in milk testing . . . 381 

162. Dividers for measuring length of fat column . . . 381 

163. Method of reading fat column in cream testing . . 382 

164. Diagram showing the rapidity with which bacteria multiply 

in milk not properly cooled 383 

165. Clean white suits and small-top milk pails used in a sanitary 

dairy 384 

166. Open and small-top milk pails ...... 385 

167. Points of the sheep, side view 392 

168. Points of the sheep, front and rear views .... 393 

169. Southdown sheep 394 

170. Shi'opshire ram . ........ 395 

171. Hampshire ewe . . . . . . . . . 395 

172. Dorset ewes 396 

173. Cheviot ram 397 

174. Leicester ewe 398 

175. Cotswold ram 399 

176. Lincoln ewe 400 

177. Type A, Merino ram 400 

178. Rambouillet ewe . 401 

179. Points of the hog, three-quarters front view . . . 408 

180. Points of the hog, side view 408 

181. Berkshire sow 409 

182. Poland-China sow 409 

183. Chester white swine ........ 410 

184. Duroc- Jersey sow . . . . . . . .411 

185. Hampshire boar 412 

186. Yorkshire sow 412 



xxii List of Illustrations 

FIG. . PAGE 

187. Glossary chart giving the names of the various sections of 

a male fowl 426 

188. Light Brahma male ........ 427 

189. Buff cochin male 428 

190. White Leghorn male 429 

191. Barred Plymouth Rock male 429 

192. Rhode Island Red male 429 

193. White Wyandotte male .429 

194. Bottom view of a walking plow . . . . . 445 

195. Sulky plow (reversible) 446 

196. A ten-bottom gang plow with gasoline tractor . . . 447 

197. Disc plow 448 

198. Subsoil plow 449 

199. Disc harrow 449 

200. Cutaway disc harrow 450 

201. Spring-tooth harrow ........ 450 

202. Spike-tooth harrow ........ 451 

203. "Acme" harrow . . . . . . . . 452 

204. One-horse cultivator ........ 452 

205. One-row straddle cultivator 453 

206. Two-row straddle cultivator 453 

207. Weeder 454 

208. One-horse corn-planter . . . . . . . 455 

209. A tractor pulling six seeders 458 

210. A tractor as source of power for threshing . . . 459 



LIST OF TABLES 

Table Page 
I, The Composition of Fresh Manure .... 70 
II. Comparison of Protected and Exposed Manure. Per- 
centages of Loss 73 

III. Fertihzer Equivalents .90 

IV. Planting Table for Vegetables 284 

V. Composition of Grains ....... 290 

VI. Composition of By-Product Feeds . . . .291 

VII. Composition of Hays 292 

VIII. Composition of Straws and Corn Stover . . . 293 

IX. Composition of Green Crops 294 

X. Digestible Nutrients of Feeds ..... 296 

XI. Market Classes of Horses and Mules with Limits in 

Height and Weight 316 

XII. Rations for Horses . . . . . . .322 

XIII. Location of the Common Unsoundnesses and Faults 

of Horses 324 

XIV. Market Classes and Grades of Beef Cattle . . . 345 
XV. American Breeds of Chickens 430 

XVI. Size of Farm and Labor Income 464 

XVII. Size of Farm and Efficiency of Man Labor . . . 464 
XVIII. Size of Farm and Efficieney of Horse Labor . . .465 



xxiu 



EFFECTIVE FARMING 



CHAPTER I 
GENERAL VIEW 

Agriculture fundamental. 

Agriculture as art, science, and business. 

Divisions of agriculture. 

Farm possibilities. 

Very interesting and important is the study of agriculture. 
It is essentially a study of nature. The scene of agriculture 
is the out-of-doors. It is associated with weather, clouds, 
sun, and open sky. It is founded on the soil, itself so complex 
that we do not yet understand it fully ; in the soil the changes 
are involved, due to many chemical reactions, the movement 
of fluids, and the work of millions of microorganisms, all modi- 
fied by rainfall, frost and heat, structure, action of roots, 
manipulation by the farmer, and many other conditions. Every 
seed is a mystery, containing within itself a living plant pos- 
sessing wonderful possibihties. Under the proper conditions, 
this seed grows, the resulting plant bearing stems and leaves 
and flowers and fruit, all fashioned out of the abundant atmos- 
phere and earth. Many of these plants become the food of 
animals, and their elements later appear in meat, milk, wool, 
and in the muscles and the power to pull a load. Constant 
change is the order of nature ; the famier utilizes these changes 
in the production of his crops and live-stock. The better he 
understands them, the greater success and satisfaction should 
he have in his work. 

1. Agriculture fundamental. — Agriculture is the produc- 
tion of plants and animals useful to man, together with the 

B 1 



2 Effective Farming 

marketing and other practices that appertain thereto. It is 
fundamentally the most important occupation, for practically 
all others depend on it and it is essential to the maintenance of 
the race. Mining, manufacturing, and commerce would soon 
cease were it not for the farmer. Not only most of the food, 
but also much of the material used in manufacturing and the 
arts is produced out of the land by the hand of the farmer. 
Garfield has aptly said, " At the head of all sciences and arts, 
at the head of civilization and progress stands — not militarism, 
the science that kills, not commerce, the art that accumulates 
wealth — but agriculture, the mother of all industry, and the 
maintainer of human life." 

2. Agricjilture as art, science, and business. — Agriculture 
is an art, the application of science, and a business. Art has 
to do with skill gained through practice. Science considers 
the reasons for all the operations. Biology, chemistry, physics, 
and meteorology contribute directly to what may be termed 
the collective science of agriculture. Investigation in the 
laboratory and the field has yielded much information useful 
to the farmer and this knowledge, coupled with statements 
of methods and records of experience, has been arranged and 
published in books and bulletins which are available for study. 

The business side of farming is no less important than the 
art and science phases. A farmer may be skillful in his farm 
operations and have good understanding of the scientific prin- 
ciples involved, but may fail on account of lack of business, or 
commercial, ability. The commercial side involves executive 
power of a high order in the managing of men, the systematiz- 
ing of farm work, the purchasing of supplies, the keeping of 
records and accounts, and the packing and marketing of produce. 

Not only should the farmer produce crops and animals, but 
he should do this effectively, with the least expenditure of time 
and effort to accomplish a given result. He should maintain 
the fertility of the land, not only for the production of larger 
yields for himself, but also for the sake of those who are to come 



General View 3 

after him. The farm is an establishment in itself in which the 
good countryman has pride and into which he puts his best 
efforts as a man. 

Farmers too often live and farm according to rules and 
methods estabhshed by their forefathers, and such persons often 
fail to profit by the discoveries and methods of modern agri- 
culture. If North America is to maintain its place in feeding 
and clothing its own population and in adding to the supply 
of other countries, the farmers of the future must be thor- 
oughly trained to their occupation. 

3. Divisions of agriculture. — Agriculture is grouped into 
crop husbandry, animal husbandry, and agricultural manu- 
facture. Crop husbandry is subdivided into grain-growing, 
fruit-growing, fiber-crop production, forestry, floriculture, 
and other branches. Animal husbandry includes dairy pro- 
duction, beef-raising, sheep-raising, swine-raising, poultry- 
raising, and bee-keeping. The manufacture of agricultural 
products deals with butter-making, cheese-making, ice-cream 
making, the manufacture of evaporated milk and evaporated 
fruits, and the home weaving of cotton and other textiles into 
thread and cloth. Naturally these groups and subdivisions 
overlap and individual farmers often produce many kinds of 
farm crops and manufactured products, and raise live-stock 
as well. For example, a farmer may be a fruit-grower and a 
poultryman, a dairyman and a manufacturer of butter and 
cheese, a grain-grower and a producer of both beef and grain. 
Or he may be a specialist and produce only one kind of crop. 
Thus he may be a market-gardener and not grow enough grain 
to feed his own teams, or a fruit-grower exclusively, or a poultry- 
man who has only a few acres and buys all the feed for his fowls. 
The scientific principles of agriculture apply equally to many 
kinds of farming. As examples, the considerations underlying 
soil improvement relate as well to grain-growing as to fruit 
or vegetable production, the principles of nutrition are as 
important to the farmer producing beef cattle as to the dairy- 



4 Effective Farming 

man, the underlying facts in the control of insects and plant 
diseases apply over a very wide range of crops. 

4. Farm possibilities. — The farmer lives on his farm, de- 
veloping his home and all its surroundings. This home should 
be convenient, comfortable, and attractive. He has relation 
to highways, telephones, mail routes, neighbors, churches, 
schools, societies, fairs, farm-bureaus, markets, and transporta- 
tion. All the affairs and activities of the farmers, of their 
families and helpers, constitute an agricultural life. This 
life is as important to the nation as the products that the farm- 
ers raise. The farmer cannot confine himself within his own 
fences. He is part of the community and is under obligation 
to take part in its activities. 

The crops and animals are to be of the best. The farmer 
himself is also to be well reared, well educated, well fed, well 
clothed. His family is to be provided with a good dwelhng, 
good books and periodicals, good pictures, good music, good 
grounds and yards. The farm people are to derive the greatest 
satisfaction from their occupation, not only in money, but in 
home comforts, in the appreciation of nature, and in the desir- 
able things of life. 

REFERENCES 

Crissey, Forrest, The Story of Foods. Rand, McNally & Co! 
Sanford, Albert H., The Story of Agriculture. D. C. Heath and Co. 
Smith, J. Russell, Commerce and Industry. Henry Holt and Co. 
Bowsfield, C. C, Making the Farm Pay. Forbes and Co. 
Halligan, J. E., Fundamentals of Agriculture. D. C. Heath and Co. 
McBryde, J. B., Elements of Agriculture. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co. 
Fisher, M. L., and Cotton, F. A., Agriculture for Commori Schools. 

Charles Scribner's Sons. 
McMahon, J. R., Success in the Suburbs. G. P. Putnam's Sons. 



CHAPTER II 

PLANT STUDY 

Elements and compounds. 
Classes of compounds in plants. 

Water, ash, carbohydrates, fat, protein. 

Materials determined by the chemist. 
Structure and functions of plant parts. 

Cells of plants. 

Epidermis and bark of plants. 

Function of roots. 

Function of stems. 

Function of leaves. 

Function of flowers. 

The buds. 
Propagation by spores. 
Propagation by seeds. 

Conditions necessary for germination. 

Storing of seeds. 

Quality of seeds to purchase. 
Propagation of field, vegetable, and greenhouse crops by division. 

Division of the crown. 

Specialized buds. 

Fleshy roots. 

Herbaceous cuttings. 

Tillers and rootstocks. 
Propagation of fruit plants by division. 

Hardwood stem cuttings. 

Root cuttings. 

Layers. 

Grafts. 

Buds. 

List of commercial methods. 

Crops are the products of plants. In some cases the product 
is the fruit, as the apple and Indian corn ; in others, the root, 
as turnip and beet ; in others, the leaves, as lettuce and tobacco ; 

5 



6 Effective Farming 

in others, the fiber on the seeds or in the stem, as cotton and 
hemp ; in others, the seed itself, as beans and peas ; in others, 
the entire herbage above ground, as alfalfa, timothy, june- 
grass. In other cases, the product is a manufactured com- 
modity, as sugar. The study of plants is fundamental to the 
study of crops. One does not understand nature until one 
knows something about plants. The earth is covered with 
vegetation ; the vacant lot soon becomes covered with weeds. 
All the plants, of so many thousand kinds, take nourishment 
from the soil and the air. They live and grow and multiply 
their kind. We could not live on the earth were it not so. 
The processes in plant life are therefore very important for us 
to know before we proceed. 

5. Elements and compounds. — Before taking up the study 
of plants, it will be well to recall a few principles of physics and 
chemistry. All substances in nature are subject to changes in 
form and composition. When a piece of iron is broken or 
crushed the form is changed, but each particle has the same 
composition as before. This change is physical. If the piece 
of iron is left out of doors, rust forms on its surface. This is 
a different substance from iron ; it is composed of iron and 
oxygen, the oxygen coming from the air. Such a change in 
composition is chemical. The simplest form in which matter 
can exist is as an element ; the chemical union of two or more 
elements forms a compound. In nature there are only about 
eighty different elements, but there are many compounds. 
When compounds or elements mix physically and do not unite 
chemically, a mechanical mixture is formed. The air is an 
example of this, as it is made up of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon 
dioxide, and some other gases, but they are not united 
chemically. 

6. Classes of compounds in plants. — Analyses of plants 
show many different compounds, but these can be grouped into 
five classes known as : water, ash, carbohydrates, fat, and 
protein. 



Plant Study 7 

Water in plants. — Water is composed of the elements, hydro- 
gen and oxygen. It not only forms a part of the body of the 
plant, but carries dissolved food to all parts — root, stem, and 
leaves — and regulates the temperature of the plant during 
growth. 

Ash in plants. — The mineral matter of plants is the ash. 
It is that portion that remains after the plant has been burned 
and includes all the materials, except water and nitrogen, that 
the plant takes from the soil. The elements in the ash of 
plants are potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron, 
sulfur, sodium, chlorine, sihcon, manganese, and aluminum. 

Carbohydrates in plants. — The carbohydrates are composed 
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include chiefly 
starches, sugars, cellulose, and pentosans. Starch in its vari- 
ous forms is more or less familiar to all and is found most 
largely in the seeds, roots, and tubers. Plant-sugar includes 
cane-sugar, beet-sugar, maple-sugar, and glucose. Cellulose 
is the fiber of plants. It is found more largely in the stems and 
leaves than in the seeds. It is neither soluble nor digestible. 
Pentosans aid the cellulose in giving form to the plant-tissue ; 
they are insoluble in pure water, but soluble in dilute acid. 
When acted upon by the digestive juices in the animal-body, 
they are dissolved and are useful as nourishment. 

Fat in plants. — In nearly all plants fat is present. It is 
found more largely in the seeds than in the other parts. Flax, 
rape, and cotton seeds are rich in fat. The percentage in plants 
varies considerably. In tubers it is sometimes a few hundredths 
of one per cent, while in the flaxseed it is thirty-five per cent. 
Corn is often five per cent fat, wheat two per cent, hay about 
one and one-half per cent, and straw less than one-half per cent. 

Protein in plants. — The term protein is used to designate 
those organic compounds that contain the four elements, car- 
bon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Some contain phos- 
phorus, sulfur, or iron in addition. Protein is a general term 
and the number of compounds included in this group is very 



8 Effective Farming 

large. Because of the presence of nitrogen in all the com- 
pounds, they are often termed nitrogenous, to distinguish them 
from the others which are termed non-nitrogenous compounds. 
None of the other classes contains nitrogen. 

Materials determined by the chemist. — When making chemi- 
cal analyses of plants, the chemist determines the water, ash, 
protein, ether-extract, crude-fiber, and nitrogen-free extract. 
The meaning of the last three terms requires some explanation. 
Ether-extract is applied to those compounds that are soluble 
in ether. They are largely fats, but as yet the chemist is unable 
to determine the quantity of pure fat in all substances. Crude- 
fiber includes cellulose and some other bodies that make up 
the frame- work of vegetable tissue. Nitrogen-free extract 
is composed of compounds that contain no nitrogen and these 
are largely starch, sugar, and pentosans. 

7. Structure and functions of plant parts. — When a very 
small portion of plant substance is examined under a microscope 
of high power, it is seen to be made up of a large number of 
divisions more or less clearly defined. These are called cells. 
In a transverse section they present somewhat the appearance 
of the cells of a honey-comb, which accounts for the name. 
The higher plants are composed of many cells of different 
forms ; some of the lower plants consist of but a single cell ; 
others, of a single row of cells. A cell is surrounded by a cell- 
wall and, in the case of live cells, the interior is a semi-liquid, 
translucent substance called protoplasm. Growth in plants 
may occur either by the expansion or by the multiplication of 
cells, which takes place either by the dividing of old cells into 
two or more smaller ones or by the forming of new cells within 
old ones, these new cells in either case enlarging later to full size. 

Epidermis and hark of plants. — Succulent parts of plants 
are covered with a thin skin, known as the epidermis, which 
extends over the entire surface of the leaves, stem, and roots. 
This skin is made up of fairly thick-walled cells that protect 
the more dehcate interior parts. In the older stems of woody 



Plant Study 9 

plants the epidermis is replaced by bark. Beneath the bark 
is a layer of cells called the cambium-layer, forming the growing 
tissue of the plant cylinder. 

Minute openings, known as stoma ta (singular, stoma), are 
found in the epidermis of the leaves. These openings are 
extremely small and the number on a leaf is very large ; it has 
been found that more than one hundred thousand are present on 
the under surface of an apple leaf. The water that passes from 
the plant as vapor and the oxygen set free in the elaboration 
of food in the leaves escape from these openings, and carbon 
dioxide from the air passes into the plants through them. 

Function of roots. — The roots have two very important 
functions. They anchor the plants in the ground and serve 
to supply them with water in which is dissolved the food that 
is taken up from the soil. The root system is made up of the 
main roots and branching parts that penetrate the soil in all 
directions. On these small branching parts are found tiny 
root-hairs that penetrate between the soil particles and absorb 
water containing plant-food, which is carried up into the plant 
as sap. As many as twenty to twenty-five thousand root- 
hairs may be present on a square inch of root surface. Each 
root-hair consists of a single elongated cell. As the end of 
the root advances through the soil, new root-hairs are formed 
beyond the older ones and those farther back die. 

Water from the soil passes through the cell-walls of the root- 
hairs by what is known as osmotic pressure. When two liquids 
of different densities are separated by a semi-permeable mem- 
brane, there is a movement of the less dense solution toward 
the more dense. This is known as osmosis. That liquids 
move as just described can be proved by tying a piece of pig's 
bladder that has been soaked in water over the end of a thistle- 
tube, filling the tube with a sugar sirup until it stands in the 
neck of the tube, and placing the tube, bell-end down, in the 
water. A large-mouthed bottle fitted with a cork through which 
the tube can extend is a convenient receptacle to hold the water. 



10 Effective Farming 

There will be an exchange of liquids through the bladder, 
which will be indicated by a rise of the liquid in the tube. 
In this way water with dissolved plant-food passes into the 
root through the root-hairs. The walls of the root-hairs are 
a semi-permeable membrane and the sap in the plants is of 
greater density than the water solution in the soil. Conse- 
quently there is a passing of water and dissolved plant-food 
into the root. 

Function of stems. — In most species of plants the stem is 
the part that supports the leaves. However, in some kinds, 
the Irish potato and Bermuda-grass for example, underground 
stems develop, and in certain cacti the stem and leaves are one. 

The parts of a stem where leaf or leaves or other stems are 
attached are called nodes and the space between adjacent 
nodes, an internode. Examine several species of plants and 
locate these parts. 

Function of leaves. — The leaves are a very wonderful labora- 
tory where important changes occur. The food that is taken 
from the soil and carried in the sap and the carbon dioxide 
that passes from the air into the leaves through the stomata 
are united chemically in the leaves and form the various com- 
pounds of which the plant body is composed. Thus we might 
think of the leaves as the stomach of the plant. Chlorophyl, 
the green coloring matter of plants, is necessary in the chemical 
change that takes place. Chlorophyl forms only in the light. 
The process by which plants manufacture the food compounds 
is called photosynthesis. 

The changed food material is carried from the leaves to 
the different parts of the plant where it is used to build up 
the plant body. In the elaboration of plant-food not all the 
water absorbed b}^ the root-hairs is required and the surplus 
and also some uncombined oxygen pass off through the stomata 
into the air. 

Function of flowers. — Flowers are the reproductive organs 
of the plant. They are classified as complete and incomplete. 



Plant Study 11 

A complete flower consists of four parts — calyx, corolla, stamens, 
and pistils. Cherry, apple, and cotton blossoms are examples 
of this class. With a complete flower before you, locate the dif- 
ferent parts as described here. The calyx is usually green and 
consists of leaf-like parts, the sepals, surrounding the stem 
at the bottom of the blossom. The corolla is the spreading 
part just above the calyx. It consists of the petals, which are 
often white or bright-colored. Inside the corolla is a group of 
slender parts called stamens. These are the male organs of 
reproduction. Each stamen is made up of three parts : the long 
slender stalk that connects with the stem is the filament (some- 
times absent) ; the enlarged part at the top of the filament is 
the anther ; the yellow dust of the anther is the pollen. Inside 
the group of stamens in the middle of the flower are the pistils 
or, in some cases, only one pistil. These are the female organs 
of reproduction. The parts of a pistil are the ovary, which is 
at the base of the pistil, and the style, which is the slender part 
that supports the enlarged flattened summit called the stigma. 
The ovary contains the ovules that when properly fertilized, 
as described later, develop into the seeds. 

Flowers of certain species vary considerably from those of 
the apple, cherry, and cotton. The petals may not be uniform 
in size or may be wanting. Certain parts of the flower, in some 
species, are lacking ; the corolla may be absent ; there may be 
neither calyx nor corolla ; some flowers have no stamens ; some 
have no pistils. If stamens and pistils are in different flowers, 
termed staminate and pistillate flowers, they are known as 
imperfect flowers. If the staminate and pistillate flowers are on 
the same individual, the plant is said to be monoecious ; if on 
different plants, dioecious. 

The union of the male cell and the female cell in the forma- 
tion of the embryo of a seed is known as fertilization. This is 
accomplished after the pollen is carried to the stigma. During 
a certain period of growth, the surface of the stigma is moist 
and, if a fertile pollen grain adheres to the stigma at this time, 



12 Effective Farming 

SL slender projection of the pollen-cell penetrates the stigma, 
passes through it to the ovule, and the egg-cell is fertilized. 
The fertilized egg-cells develop into the seeds. The distribution 
of the pollen is called polhnation and takes place for the most 
part by means of the wind or insects. In flowers that are 
pollinated by the wind, the petals are usually inconspicuou 
in color, while those pollinated by insects are usually bright 
in color or fragrant. Why is this? 

The huds. — A bud is a condensed body containing rudi- 
mentary parts which represent leaves or flowers. Such a 
body at the end of a twig is a terminal bud, one at the junction 
of a leaf with the stem is a lateral bud. Under the stimulus of 
vigorous root pressure, buds may be formed along the inter- 
nodes. For example a willow cut off early in the growing sea- 
son will develop buds at the top of the stump ; or when trees 
have been severely pruned water-sprouts may form along 
the branches ; or in the case of a frosted tree a circle of shoots 
may spring up around the base of the tree. Such buds are 
called adventitious. In propagation by division of the plant, 
adventitious buds are often utilized. (See paragraph 10.) 

8. Propagation by spores. — Spores are the organs by means 
of which the fungi propagate. They are small seed-like bodies 
that, under favorable conditions, send out thread-hke germinat- 
ing tubes which, on penetrating a suitable host, draw nourish- 
ment from it. Spores differ from seeds because they do not 
contain an embryo, or undeveloped plant. This method of propa- 
gation is not of direct importance so far as the production of 
crops other than mushrooms is concerned ; it is indirectly im- 
portant, however, because it is the means of reproduction of 
many of the diseases of higher plants, such as rust, leaf-spot, 
mildew, and scab. All the so-called flowerless plants, as ferns, 
mosses, and sea- weeds, propagate by spores. The spore is not 
usually the direct result of fertilization. 

9. Propagation by seeds. — Nature's primary method of 
multiplying the higher plants is by seeds. Nearly all of these 



Plant Study 13 

plants produce seeds. However, in farm practice it has been 
found that some plants can be propagated better commercially 
by dividing them. (See paragraph 10.) Annual plants such 
as corn, small grains, and most vegetables are usually propa- 
gated by seeds. 

In every live seed is the embryo, or germ, which is really a 
living undeveloped plant. The seed also contains stored-up 
food material (starch and oil largely) that can be used by the 
embryo while the seed is sprouting and by the plantlet until it 
can secure nourishment from the soil and air. When live seeds 
are placed in a warm, moist, well ventilated soil, they germinate 
or sprout. They can also be sprouted by placing them between 
pieces of cloth or blotting-paper and keeping moist and warm. 
When sprouted seeds are examined, it is seen that the seed- 
coats have broken and tiny shoots have burst through 
the opening. The embryo of a seed consists of three parts : 
the radicle, also known as the caulicle and as the hypocotyl, 
the part that develops into the root ; the plumule, the part 
that develops into the stem and leaves ; the 
cotyledons (in some species of plants only 
one cotyledon is present), the seed leaves 
that nourish the young plant. A sprouted 
bean (Fig. 1) may be examined to learn the 

three parts. The slender stem-like part is ^j^ ^ A sprouted 

the radicle, the two tiny leaves between the bean, a, radicle; 
halves of the bean form the plumule (in the ledons! ^ ' '^' ^° ^" 
illustration the plumule is shown outside the 
bean), and the halves of the bean are the cotyledons. When 
a planted bean grows, the cotyledons are brought above the 
ground and, as the plant continues to develop, they shrink in 
size, the stored-up food they contain being used by the plant 
until it obtains sufficient nourishment from the soil. In some 
cases the stored-up food is separate from the embryo, as in 
the corn. A corn kernel in cross-section is shown in Fig. 2. 
The caulicle, plumule, and cotyledon (corn has one cotyle- 




14 



Effective Farming 

The stored-up food is called the 



don) are plainly marked, 
endosperm. 

Conditions necessary for germination. — Moisture, warmth, 
and oxygen are necessary for the germination of seeds. Live 
seeds will not germinate if kept dry ; they must absorb a cer- 
tain quantity of water before the seed-coat will burst and the 
plumule and caulicle emerge. The seeds of different species 
of plants vary as to the temperature at which they will sprout ; 




Fig. 2. — Cross-section of a germinating maiz > kernel. A, endosperm; 
Cot, cotyledon ; Cau, caulicle, or radicle ; PI, plumule. 

some seeds, like those of the sweet pea, will sprout at a rela- 
tively low temperature, while others, cotton for example, re- 
quire a higher temperature. Seeds will not sprout in a medium 
that does not contain oxygen. In soil of good tilth air, and 
therefore oxygen, is present in the spaces between the soil 
particles. In a soil saturated with water, the air has been 
crowded out and seeds planted in such soil will not germinate, 
because of the lack of oxygen. 

Storing of seeds. — Seeds should be stored in a cool dry place 
where they can be protected from rats, mice, and other pests. 
Both warmth and moisture are to be avoided in a storage house. 
Warm, moist seeds that are subjected soon after to freezing 



Plant Study 15 

are very likely to be injured for germinating purposes. When 
seeds are dry they can withstand considerable cold. The rea- 
son for protecting seeds from pests is obvious. 

Quality of seeds to purchase. — The farmer when purchasing 
seeds should see that they are plump and well filled. Shrunken 
seeds seldom produce healthy plants. The purity of the seeds 
must be considered, also, by purity being meant the presence 
or absence of weed seeds. Small seeds like clover and alfalfa 
often contain weed seeds and if planted many weeds will grow 
in the field. The difference between the cost of good and of 
poor seeds is very small. 

10. Propagation of field, vegetable, and greenhouse crops 
by division. — Some plants propagate themselves naturally 
by division ; others are propagated by artificial means. The 
extent to which propagation by division is used will be learned 
from the succeeding paragraphs. 

Division of the crown. — Propagation by dividing the crown 
of the plant is practicable with rhubarb, dahha, globe artichoke, 
and a few others. It consists in cutting the crown into two 
or more parts while the plant is dormant and plantmg these 
parts to form new individuals. In the case of rhubarb, which 
may be taken as an example of a plant propagated by this 
method, a piece of root containing a strong eye, or bud, will 
produce a good specimen in one season, but the stalks will not 
be ready for cutting until the second year. The roots can be 
cut into as many pieces as there are good eyes, but most grow- 
ers find it a better practice to allow two eyes to remain on each 
piece. 

Specialized buds. — Some species are' provided with spe- 
ciaUzed buds that can be planted to propagate new individuals. 
These specialized buds are known as bulbs, bulblets, corms, 
and tubers. A bulb is a very short stem that contains a ter- 
minal bud surrounded by scales, the enlargement of the onion 
plant being an example. Bulblets are small bulbs that grow in 
the axils of the leaves of certain plants, as in the tiger lily, or at 



16 



Effective Farming 



The crocus and cyclamen 
by planting the corms. A 



the apex of the stem, as in the top, or bulb-bearing, onion. A 
corrn is similar to a bulb, except that it is not composed of scales. 
The food for the new plant is deposited in the thickened stem. 

flowering plants, are propagated 
tuber is an underground stem that 
is provided with buds, or eyes. 
The white potato produces 
tubers and, by planting pieces 
of these, potatoes are propa- 
gated. Each piece should 
contain at least one eye and 
most gardeners prefer to plant 
two. The portion of the tuber 
planted acts as food for the 
new plant until it is able to 
take nourishment from the soil. 
The parts of the white potato 
plant are shown in Fig. 3. 

Fleshy roots. — Sweet pota- 
toes are usually propagated by 
placing the roots, or potatoes, 
in soil in hot-beds. By reason 
of the heat in the bed, buds 
form and develop into sprouts 
and these, called slips or draws, 
are pulled off and planted. 
Sweet potatoes also are some- 
times propagated by vine cut- 
ting, as described later. 
Herbaceous cuttings. — Plants such as the geranium, coleus, 
begonia, and heliotrope are propagated by means of herbaceous 
cuttings. A cutting is a detached part of the plant that will 
take root when placed in soil, sand, or water. Later it can 
be transplanted. Herbaceous cuttings are usually made from 
the stem with a few leaves attached, but in the case of the 




Fig. 3. 



Parts of the white potato 
plant. 



Plant Study 



17 



begonia the leaves can be made to sprout. Fig. 4 shows a 
cutting of coleus. 

Sugar-cane is propagated by planting stalks from which the 
leaves and tops have been stripped. A bud is borne on each 
node of the stem. When the stem is placed in the soil, these 
buds will develop into new plants. The buds are easily killed 
by freezing and for this reason that 
part of the crop to be saved for plant- 
ing is harvested early and protected 

against frost. [-'^^^""^'^.(f**" 






Tillers and rootstocks. — Grasses are 
propagated by means of seeds, but they 
multiply naturally by tillers and by 
rootstocks. Timothy, for example, or 
any grain such as wheat, rye, or oats, 
which are grasses, multiplies by tillers. ^^^- 4. -Cutting of coleus. 
Off-shoots called tillers are produced from the lower nodes of a 
plant and these develop into stalks. Later the new off -shoots 
produce others and this process continues until the plant be- 
comes mature. This process is called tillering. 

In propagation by means of rootstocks the plant sends out 
lateral shoots, in most species just below the surface of the 
ground, and these produce at the nodes a set of roots and a 
stem that forms a new plant. Each of these new plants may 
in turn send out shoots and produce other individuals. As 
this process continues, a close sod is formed. Kentucky blue- 
grass and Bermuda-grass reproduce in this way. 

11. Propagation of fruit plants by division. — Most fruit 
plants are propagated by division and several of them propa- 
gate naturally. For example, the red raspberry produces 
sprouts or suckers that make new plants. The strawberry 
sends out runners along the surface of the ground that take 
root, thus producing new individuals. These plants may be 
cut off and transplanted. The black raspberry produces long 
drooping canes, called stolons, that take root when the tips 



18 Effective Farming 

touch the ground. As soon as the stolons have become rooted, 
the new plant is ready to be transplanted. 

The chief method of propagating fruit plants is by division 
artificially. The means employed are : hardwood stem cut- 
ting, root cuttings, layers, grafts, and buds. 

Hardwood stem cuttings are made from the ripened wood of 
the previous season's growth. Grapes, currants, gooseberries, 
and cranberries are often propagated by means 
of these stem cuttings. In Fig. 5 are shown 
cuttings of the grape and in Fig. 6, cuttings 
of the currant. Hardwood stem cuttings must 
bear at least one bud and, unless the supply 
of stock is limited, they are usually cut with 
two or more buds. Three kinds of these 
cuttings — simple, heel, and mallet — are used 
in horticultural practice. A simple cutting 
consists of a straight part of the shoot or 
cane, as shown in Fig. 5 ; it is usually cut 
off just below the lower bud, since roots 
develop more readily than when more of the 
internode is left below the bud. The roots 
develop from adventitious buds. A heel cut- 
ting is made in such a way that a small part 
of the branch to which the stem is growing 
remains attached to the cutting, as shown at 
the right in Fig. 6 ; this forms what is known 
as the heel. Obviously one cutting only can 
Fig. 5. — Simple cut- be made from the branch and this is a disad- 
tings of the grape, ^^^^tage, especially if cutting-wood is scarce. 
However, a heel cutting is somewhat easier to root than a 
simple cutting. A mallet cutting is similar to a heel cutting, 
except that the cuts in the parent branch both above and 
below the attachment are made entirely through the branch, 
as shown at the left in Fig. 6, thus leaving a section of the 
parent branch attached to the cutting. 




Plant Study 



19 



Hardwood stem cuttings are made late in the fall or early 
in the winter when the wood is dormant. In practice they 
are tied in bundles of twenty-five to fifty with the butts all one 
way and usually the bundles are placed butt-end up in a trench 
in the ground below frost depth and covered with soil. This 
way of handling keeps the top buds from 
freezing and places the root ends where they 
can be warmed by the sun heat in the spring 
to stimulate root growth. Instead of placing 
the bundles in the ground, some growers store 
them through the winter in a cool cellar in 
sand, sawdust, or moss. Whichever method 
is followed, in the spring the bundles are 
taken up, untied, and the cuttings planted 
about three inches apart in the soil. One 
or two buds are left above the surface of the 
ground and the soil is packed firmly about 
the base of the cutting. If conditions for 
growth are favorable, the cuttings will start 
roots and stem during the growing season and 
will be ready for transplanting in the fall or 
the following spring. 

Root cuttings. — Pieces of roots, usually, 
about the size of a lead-pencil and about 
three inches in length, are sometimes used 
for propagating fruit plants. Blackberries 
and raspberries are often propagated in this 
way. The cuttings are made in the autumn 
after the leaves have fallen, and are stored 
until spring in moss in a cool cellar. When the ground has 
warmed in the spring, they are planted horizontally about two 
inches apart and covered with about three inches of soil. 
By fall or the next spring, they should have developed plants 
that can be transplanted. 

Layers. — A branch or vine that is placed in contact with 




Fig. 6. — Mallet cut. 
ting and heel cut- 
ting of the currant. 



20 Effective Farming 

the soil and induced to take root while still attached to the 
parent plant is called a layer and the process of propagating 
plants in this way is known as layering. Grapes and black 
raspberries are often propagated by layering. In the case of 
the grape, this may be accomplished by bending down in the 
spring a cane of the previous season's growth, laying it in a 
shallow trench in the ground, partly filling the trench with fine 
earth, and packing the earth firmly about the cane. About 
eight inches or so of the end of the cane is left uncovered to 
supply foliage to keep the vine growing. Sprouts will soon 
form on the layer and as these grow the trench is gradually 
filled up. As soon as the new plants are thoroughly rooted, 
they are detached from the parent plant and transplanted. 

Black raspberries are propagated by what is called tip layer- 
ing. A cane is bent over and the tip covered with about two 
inches of soil. Roots and a crown of buds that will form a 
new cane will develop. When the new plant is well rooted, 
it is separated from the parent plant and set where it is to stand 
permanently. 

Mound layering is a method often employed for propagating 
currants, gooseberries, and quinces. In the case of currants, 
the bush is cut back early in the spring to stimulate new growth 
and early in the /all earth is mounded up around the plants 
until it covers the new wood. This causes roots to develop 
on these new canes. Thus a number of new individuals are 
produced. These may be removed from the parent plant and 
transplanted the next spring. 

Grafts. — When a twig of one tree is fastened to the stem or 
root of another in such a way that the twig will continue growth 
from nourishment furnished by the latter, it forms a graft. 
The twig is known as the cion and the stem or root as the 
stock. The cambium layers of stock and cion must be in con- 
tact; Then sap will be carried from the stock to the cion. 
This method is employed extensively for apples, pears, quinces, 
apricots, plums, and others. When propagating apple trees, 



Plant Study 



21 



seeds are placed in moist sand in the fall or winter to soften 
them and in the spring they are taken up and planted about 
an inch deep in rich soil. The ground is thoroughly cultivated 
during the growing season and in the fall after frost the seed- 
lings are dug up and stored in green sawdust in a cool cellar. 
Early in November cions are cut from trees of the variety de- 
sired to propagate. These should be about six inches long and 
of the previous season's growth. The cions are packed in saw- 
dust in the cellar and whip-graftecl on pieces of seedling root 
in January or February. In the most usual 
method followed, the roots of the seedlings 
are cut into pieces three or four inches 
long and each piece used as a stock. When 
making the union of stock and cion, a slant- 
ing cut is made on the upper end of a 
piece of root and a similar cut on the base 
of a cion. Both the root and the cion are 
split about an inch down, as shown in Fig. 
7, a and b, and the two are fitted together, 
as shown in c. The two must fit snugly 
and the cambium layers must be in contact, 
on one side at least. The graft is then 
wrapped with waxed cotton (see page 28) to hold the two 
parts firmly together. The finished grafts are packed in saw- 
dust in the cellar until spring and, as soon as the soil has warmed 
up, they are planted in the nursery or garden. One bud only 
is left above the surface of the ground. The ground is culti- 
vated during the summer and by fall the grafts should be large 
enough to be set in the soil where they are to stand permanently. 
However, if not needed for immediate planting, they may be 
grown in the nursery for another year. A better practice is to 
use whole roots rather than pieces of roots for stocks. 

Grafting is often employed for top-working apple trees when 
it is desired to change the variety or have more than one variety 
on a tree. The cions are set into the branches of the tree. 




Fig. 7.— Whip-graftr- 
ing. a, the stock ; 
b, the cion; c, stock 
and cion united. 



22 



Effective Farming 



The usual way of top-working is to cleft-graft, which method 
is herewith described. In late fall or early winter cions of the 
previous season's growth, bearing two or three buds, are 
cut from trees known to be producers of good fruit of the variety 
desired and are stored in sand or sawdust in a cool cellar where 
they will remain dormant. The grafting is done in the spring 
before growth starts. A branch to be grafted (usually one 
about an inch and a half in diameter) is sawed straight across, 

care being taken not to loosen 
the bark. The stub is split with 
a grafting tool, as shown in Fig. 

5, a, or with a chisel and a cion 
cut to a wedge shape with one 
edge thicker than the other is set 
into the stock, as shown in Fig. 8, 

6, with the thickest edge toward 
the outside. This method of 
cutting and fitting the cion holds 
it firmly in place. In order to be 
sure that the growing tissues are 
in contact, it is well to set the 
cion at a slight angle ; the cam- 
biums of the cion and the stock 
must then cross at some point. 
Two cions are inserted in each 

cleft, as shown in c. After they are in place, the grafting tool is 
removed and all the cut surfaces are covered with soft grafting 
wax which, when it cools, hardens and forms a covering over 
the wood. (See page 28.) Later in the season, if both cions are 
found to be growing, the one showing less vigor is removed. 
Only a part of a tree should be top-worked because if too many 
branches are removed not enough foliage is left to nourish the 
tree. The remaining branches are removed the next year or two. 
Buds. — Budding is similar to grafting except that -a live 
bud instead of a cion is placed in contact with the cambium 




Fig. 8. — Cleft-grafting, a, splitting 
the stock ; b, cion ; c, cions in- 
serted in the cleft. 



Plant Study 23 

layer of the stock. Peaches, cherries, oranges, and several 
other fruits are propagated by budding. The method of grow- 
ing and budding peach seedlings as given in the following para- 
graphs will serve to explain the process. 

At the close of the ripening season peach pits are secured 
and either stratified or planted at once. Seedling pits are 
preferable, as trees grown from them are more hardy than those 
from the pits of cultivated varieties. However, the latter 
are often used. In stratifying pits, a well drained spot in the 
garden or nursery is chosen, the soil removed to a depth of 
five or six inches, and a layer of pits about an inch or so thick 
spread over the bottom of the bed. The layer of pits is then 
covered with a layer of soil about an inch or so thick and a second 
layer of pits is spread above this and covered with soil. If 
conditions are favorable during the winter, the pits will keep 
moist and the frost will break the shells at the suture. In the 
spring the pits are dug up and the kernels separated from the 
shells. Any pits that have not opened are cracked and the 
pits removed. As soon as the ground is dry enough to work, 
the kernels are planted in rich well drained soil in rows four 
feet apart with the pits spaced two or three inches apart in the 
row and they are covered with about three inches of soil. Dur- 
ing the growing season the young plants are cultivated fre- 
quently and some time in the summer they are thinned to stand 
about six inches apart in the row. By August they are about 
half an inch in diameter at the base and are then ready for 
budding. 

If the pits are not to be stratified, they are planted during 
the fall in the nursery or garden where they will grow, but they 
are dropped about an inch apart. The frost will open some of 
them, but not all, and the thicker planting is made to insure 
a good stand. In the spring the plants that grow are thinned 
to stand about two or three inches apart in a row and in the 
summer they are thinned to stand about six inches apart. 

Preparatory to budding the seedlings, bud-sticks are cut from 



24 



Effective Farming 




trees of the variety desired to propagate. Bud-sticks 
are from twigs of the current season's growth. The 
leaves are removed, but the petioles are left attached 
to the twig, as shown in Fig. 9, to act as handles to 
the buds to aid in inserting them underneath the 
bark of the stock. 
In cutting a bud, the 
bud-stick is held in 
one hand with the 
proximal end — the 
one that was nearest 
the limb from which 
the twig was cut — 
away from the body 

and a bud is cut by F^«- lO.- Cutting the bud. 
starting about half an inch above the bud and 
finishing about half an inch below. At the lower 
end of the cut, as shown in Fig. 10, the bark is 
left attached until the bud is needed. All the 
buds are cut before starting to insert underneath 
the bark of the stocks. The cuts in the stocks are made 
about three inches above the ground. A cross incision and 

a longitudinal in- 
cision are made 
through the bark of 
the stock, as shown 
in Fig. 11, o, and the 
bark turned back by 
means of the knife, 
as shown in 6. A 
bud is removed from 
the bud-stick by cut- 
ting it off at the 
lower end and insert- 
ing it underneath the 



Fig. 9.— Bud 

stick. 





Fig. 11. — Preparing the stork and inserting the 
bud. a, incision made in the bark ; h, the bark 
turned back ; c, the bud inserted ; d, the bud 
wrapped to the stock ; e, the seedling tree re- 
moved above the bud. 



Plant Study 



25 



bark of the stock, as shown in c. The cambium layers of stock 
and bud must be in contact. The bud is then wrapped to the 
stalk by means of raffia or waxed-string, as shown in d. To 
hold the raffia in place, the ends are pushed underneath the 
wraps. Waxed-string will stick without tying. In about three 
weeks, if the bud has set, the raffia or the string must be cut 
or it may girdle the tree. If sprouts form on the stock, they 
should be rubbed off, as they use the 
plant-food that is needed to develop the 
new bud. The following spring after 
growth starts, the seedhng tree above the 
bud is cut off, as shown in e. Frequent 
cultivation of the soil during the spring 
and summer is necessary to keep the 
young tree growing. In the fall or the 
next spring, the budded trees are ready to 
be transplanted to the place they are to 
occupy in the orchard. Fig. 12 shows a 
budded tree that is ready for transplant- 
ing. Locate the bud union. 

The branches of mature peach trees 
can be budded in the same way as out- 
lined for seedlings. This is often done 
when it is desired to change the variet}^ 
In this case, the limbs are cut to stubs 
so that new shoots will arise into which the buds are set. 

Apples are extensively propagated by budding in the nursery 
row. The salable tree is two or three years old from the 
buds. Pears, plums, and other trees are similarly propagated. 

List of commercial methods in fruit propagation. — A list is 
given below as a convenient guide to the commercial methods 
used in propagating fruit plants. It will be seen that some 
plants can be propagated in several ways. All of the methods 
listed for each plant are employed commercially. 

Apple — grafts or buds on seedling apple roots. 




Fig. 



12. — A budded 
nursery tree. 



26 Effective Farming 

Pear (standard) — buds or grafts on seedling pear roots. 

Pear (dwarf) — buds or grafts on quince roots. 

Quince — buds on Angers quince, grafts on apple roots, 
mound layers, hardwood cuttings. 

Peach — buds on peach seedlings. 

Cherry — buds on cherry seedlings. 

Plums — grafts or buds on peach, apricot, almond, or plum 
seedlings. 

Grapes — hardwood cuttings, layers, grafts on grape 
seedlings. 

Fig — hardwood cuttings. 

Citrus fruits — buds on citrus seedlings. 

Strawberry — runners. 

Red raspberry — suckers, root cuttings. 

Black raspberry — tip layers. 

Blackberry — suckers, root cuttings. 

Dewberry — tip layers. 

Currant — hardwood cuttings, mound layers. 

Gooseberry — hardwood cuttings, mound layers. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the functions of water in plants ? 

2. What are carbohydrates? 

3. The term protein is used to designate what kinds of organic 
compounds? 

4. In what three ways are plants propagated? 

5. Define spore and tell how spores differ from seeds. 

6. What is the embryo of a seed ? 

7. State the conditions necessary for the germination of seeds. 

8. How is rhubarb propagated ? 

9. Tell how to secure sweet potato slips. 

10. What is a cutting? How are cuttings made? 

11. Give examples of plants that propagate naturally by division. 

12. What time of the year are hardwood stem cuttings made? 

13. Tell how blackberries are propagated by root cuttings. 

14. Describe, the method of layering grape vines. 

15. Define graft, cion, stock, bud, bud-stick. 

16. How does budding differ from grafting? 



Plant Study 



27 




Fig. 13. — A practical seed- 
tester for small seeds. 



EXERCISES 

1. Water in plants. — Cut a white potato into pieces and observe 
the water on the cut surface. How did the water get into the plant? 
Place a small quantity of chopped hay in a test tube and heat slowly. 
Why does moisture gather around the top of the tube ? Try the same 
experiment with flour and starch. Where 
does the moisture come from? 

2. The seeds of plants. — Soak a 
few beans in water for about an hour. 
Remove the seed-coat and find the germ 
and the cotyledons. Make a seed-tester 
by placing pieces of moist cloth between 
two dinner plates, as shown in Fig. 13. 
Place bean and corn seeds in the tester. 
Keep the cloth moist and the tester in 
a warm place for three or four days. 
Examine the seeds after they are sprouted and locate the radicle, 
the plumule, and the cotyledons or cotyledon. After the roots of 
the corn have become several inches long, examine them carefully and 
compare with Fig. 14, 

3. Conditions necessary for germination. — Arrange four seed- 
testers like the one shown in Fig. 13 and place seeds in them. Label 
them 1, 2, 3, and 4. Keep tester No. 1 moist and put it in a warm place. 

The seeds are warm, 
moist, and supplied 
with oxygen (air is pres- 
ent between the pieces 
of cloth) and if they are 
alive they will sprout. 
Do not moisten the 
cloth in tester No. 2, 
but put it in a warm 
place. The seeds are 
warm and supplied with 
oxygen, but they are 
not moist and will not 
sprout. Keep tester No. 3 moist and place it in an ice-box. It 
is supplied with moisture and oxygen, but not warmth ; the seeds 
will not sprout. Keep the seeds in tester No. 4 covered with water, 
and place the tester in a warm place. By keeping the seeds covered 
with water you have practically cut off the oxygen supply and, as a 
result, the seeds will not sprout. 




^OOT OPROUT-^ 



Stem Sprout— 
Feeoinc Roots 



Fig. 14. — Parts of a sprouted maize kernel. 



28 Effective Farming 

Place soil in a tin can or glass tumbler ; plant seeds in the soil and 
keep the soil saturated with water. At the same time, plant seeds in 
soil in a flower pot or other receptacle that is provided with drainage 
and keep the soil moist, but not too wet. Explain the difference in 
results of the two plantings. 

4. Grafting-wax, waxed-string, and waxed-tape. — Grafting-wax 
is used to cover the cut surfaces in cleft-grafting ; it forms a protective 
covering impervious to moisture. Waxed-string and waxed-tape are 
used for tying buds to the stock in budding and also for holding the 
stock and cion together in whip-grafting. 

The following equipment is required to carry out this exercise. 
Two pounds of resin, one pound of beeswax, half a pound of tallow or 
half a pint of linseed oil, small quantity of tallow for greasing the hands 
and coating the paper in which the wax is to be stored, vessel in which 
to cook the ingredients, ball of No. 18 cotton yarn, and a piece of 
muslin. 

To make the wax, break the resin and beeswax into small pieces and 
place them with the tallow or linseed oil in the pan and over the heat. 
When melted pour the contents of the pan into cold water and when 
cool enough pull as you would taffy until the wax becomes light- 
colored and smooth-grained. Rub a little tallow on your hands to 
prevent the wax from sticking to the skin. Coat some paper with tal- 
low and wrap the wax in this paper and store in a cool place for future 
use. 

To make waxed-string, drop the ball of No. 18 cotton yarn into 
melted grafting-wax and leave it there for about five minutes. Re- 
move and allow it to cool. Store for future use. 

Waxed-tape is made of cloth coated with wax and torn into strips 
about one-third inch in width. It is used more largely in citrus-tree 
budding than in the propagation of other kinds of trees. To make 
waxed-tape, dip a piece of muslin of convenient size into hot grafting- 
wax, take it out immediately, and scrape off the surplus wax before 
it cools. A convenient way to do this is to throw the piece of muslin 
over a stick held horizontally by one of the pupils, then scrape off the 
wax by pulling downward with two pieces of wood pressed against 
each other, one on each side of the folded strip. After the surplus 
wax has been removed, lay the muslin out to cool and, when cool, tear 
into strips about a third of an inch wide. Wind these strips into a 
ball and as each strip is added slip the end of it about a half inch under 
the one previously added. The ends will stick together and the tape 
will be in a continuous strip, which arrangement is convenient when 
budding the seedlings. 



Plant Study 29 

5. Propagation by division. — In the winter secure a rhubarb root, 
cut it into pieces allowing two eyes to a piece, and plant the pieces in a 
window-box in the schoolroom. Watch the growth of these pieces of 
roots. Where does the plant-food that nourishes the plants come 
from? 

Wrap an Irish potato in moist cotton or sphagnum moss. Keep in 
a warm place in the schoolroom and watch results. 

Make cuttings of geranium, coleus, begonia, and heliotrope and 
plant them in coarse sand that is kept moist and warm. When rooted 
notice the place on the stem where the roots start. From what kind 
of buds do they start ? 

On a field trip observe suckers of red raspberries, stolons of black 
raspberries, and runners of strawberries. Secure rooted cuttings of 
these plants and plant them in the school garden. 

Following directions previouslj^ given, propagate grapes and currants 
by simple cuttings, blackberries and raspberries by root cuttings, grapes 
by layers, black raspberries by tip layers, apples by planting seeds and 
grafting the seedlings, and peaches by planting pits and budding the 
seedlings. Also, top-work a few branches of an apple tree by means 
of cleft-grafts and a peach tree by buds. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. The Macmillan 
Co. 

Snj^der, Harry, Soils and Fertilizer. The Macmillan Co. 

Coulter, J. G., Plant Life and Plant Uses. American Book Co. 

Needham, J. G., The Natural History of the Farm. Comstock Publish- 
ing Co. 

Comstock, Anna B., The Handbook of Nature Study. Comstock Pub- 
lishing Co. 

Soule, A. M., and Turpin, E. H. L., Agriculture. B. F. Johnson Pub- 
hshing Co. 

Kyle, E. J., and EUis, A. C, Fundamentals of Farmi7ig and Farm Life. 
Charles Scribner's Sons. 

Mayne and Hatch, High School Agriculture. American Book Co. 

Fariners' Bulletin 157, Propagation of Plants. 



CHAPTER III 

SOILS 

Constituents of soil. 

Formation of soil. 

Classification of soil according to mode of formation. 

Residual, cumulose, colluvial, alluvial, marine, lacustrine, 
glacial, seolian. 
Classification of soil according to texture. 

Clay, silty, sandy, gravelly, stony, loam. 
Classification of soil according to rainfall. 

Humid, arid, semi-arid, semi-humid. 
Heavy and light soils. 
Structure of soil. 

Separate-grained, puddled, granular. 

Conditions affecting soil structure. 
Functions of water in soil. 
Forms of water in soil. 

Hygroscopic, capillary, gravitational. 
Control of soil-water by cropping methods. 

Reducing run-off losses. 

Reducing percolation losses. 

Reducing evaporation losses. 

Improving soil structure to increase soil-water. 
Irrigation. 

Overhead irrigation. 

Sub-irrigation. 

Flooding. 

Furrow irrigation. 
Soil drainage. 

Open-ditch drainage. 

Underdrainage. 
Air in soil. 
Bacteria in soil. 

No people can be permanently prosperous and progressive 
unless it thoughtfully cares for its soil. It is out of the soil 
that the agricultural products come, for even the fish that the 

30 



Soils . 31 

farmer raises in ponds and streams could not persist were it 
not for the yield of the land. When the barns are bursting 
with great yields, the land is to be praised. We are not to 
think of soil as mere dirt, beneath our notice. The farmer 
buys his land and cares for it ; the more knowledge he has of 
it the better should be his practice. The proper care of the 
soil is perhaps his first duty. He must understand tillage and 
the reasons for it. The robbing of the land of its fertility is 
not only poor farming for the present, but it destroys the her- 
itage of the future, impoverishing those who come after us. 
A farmer should not leave worn-out land to his children ; and 
the children are to learn how to care for it, to be ready when 
it comes their time to have control. 

12. Constituents of soil. — From the farmer's standpoint, 
that part of the earth's crust in which roots can or do find a 
place to grow is soil. It is composed of broken-up rock particles 
mixed with animal, and vegetable matter. The rock particles 
are known as mineral matter; the animal and vegetable sub- 
stances, as organic matter. The particles are of various sizes 
and shapes and of different stages of decomposition ; some are 
hard and resistant to decay ; some are so decayed that they are 
easily broken. When the organic matter of soil decays until 
it loses all trace of its original structure, it forms what is called 
humus. We shall read much about humus in the following 
pages, for soils without sufficient humus are practically worth- 
less. Humus enriches the soil, makes it darker in color, helps 
to make it crumbly and easy to cultivate, aids in holding water 
for the use of the plants, and improves the soil structure. 

In addition to mineral matter and organic matter, water, 
air, bacteria, and plant-food are essential constituents of pro- 
ductive soil. These are discussed in detail later. 

The term surface soil is applied to the top layer of soil and 
subsoil to that layer just beneath it. The top soil contains 
more humus than the subsoil, is darker in color, more porous, 
and can be worked into garden condition more easily. The 



32 Effective Farming 

subsoil usually contains a relatively small percentage of humus ; 
consequently it is somewhat light in color. 

13. Formation of soil. — Geology teaches that the earth 
was once a molten mass, that it gradually cooled and formed 
solid rock. From this solid rock the soil has been formed by 
various weathering agents that have been at work for ages. 
The time element is a very important factor and should be kept 
in mind constantly when considering soil formation. The chief 
weathering agents responsible for rock decay are the atmos- 
phere, heat and cold, intermittent freezing and thawing, gla- 
ciers, water, and vegetation. 

14. Classification of soil according to mode of formation. — 
The materials of which a soil has been formed are either seden- 
tary^ or transported. Sedentary materials have not been shifted 
far from the place of origin. Most transported materials have 
been moved a considerable distance by such agencies as gravity, 
water, wind, and glaciers. Consequently according to theii' 
mode of formation, soils are either sedentary or transported. 
Each of these groups is divided as follows : 

Sedentary Soils: Transported Soils: 

Residual Colluvial 

Cumulose Alluvial 

Marine 

Lacustrine 

Glacial 

^olian 

Residual soils. — Those soils that were formed in their pres- 
ent locality from the disintegration of rocks are residual. The 
rocks found underneath them are like those from which the 
soil has been made. These are the oldest agricultural soils in 
the United States. They are found in the eastern and central 
parts and include the Piedmont Plateau, the Appalachian Moun- 
tains, the Limestone Valleys, and the Great Plains regions. 

Cumulose soils. — Peat bogs and muck soil areas are cumu- 



Soils 33 

lose. They are found in areas varying from a fraction of an 
acre to thousands of acres. Any basin that contains standing 
water throughout the year is a favorable place for the formation 
of cumulose soil. The vegetation grows, dies, and is covered 
by the water. The water, shutting out the air, prevents rapid 
oxidation and, as a result, the organic matter is largely pre- 
served and collects from year to year. The soil that eventually 
forms is very high in organic matter. Muck soil is in a more 
advanced stage of decomposition than peat. When drained, 
areas of muck soil often are of immense value for certain crops, 
especially celery, onions, and lettuce. 

Colluvial soils. — Fragments of rocks and soil that are car- 
ried to the base of cliffs by the force of gravity make up the 
colluvial soils. Their area is small and the soil is usually 
shallow and unproductive. They are found only in mountain- 
ous or very hilly regions and as farm soils are not important. 

Alluvial soils. — Along nearly every stream water-deposited 
soil can be found. This is alluvial. The power of a stream 
to carry sediment varies with the rate of flow, the more rapid 
the flow, the larger the particles that can be carried. If the 
flow of the stream that is carrying sediment is checked, some 
of the sediment is deposited. When the river-beds are rela- 
tively steep, deposits are usually narrow ribbons of coarse sand 
or gravel. When the bed becomes less steep, the deposits are 
wider and of finer material. Much humus is washed into 
alluvial deposits and soils of this type are usually rich, of good 
depth, and valuable for farming. 

Marine soils. — Along the seashore, deposits of varying 
thickness are made. When such deposits are elevated above 
the sea, a condition that is often found, they are given the 
name, marine soils. Most of these are sandy and are largely 
used for vegetable-growing. Marine soils in the United States 
extend along the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains. 

Lacustrine soils. — Sediment which has been deposited in 
lakes may later, by the drying up of the lake, become soil. 



34 Effective Farming 

Such lake-formed soils are known as lacustrine and are of two 
kinds, those made by recent lakes and those by glacial lakes. 
Large deposits of glacial lake-formed soils are found in the 
United States. The fertile Red River lands in Minnesota are 
largely of this soil. The recent lake deposits are formed when 
the lakes are filled by river sediment. The area of such soils 
in the United States is small. Lake-formed soil is usually 
rich in humus, fine, and of good tilth. 

Glacial soils. — The soils that were formed by the glaciers 
that covered the continent in prehistoric times are usually rich, 
fertile, of good tilth, and produce good crops. They extend 
over several of the best farming states, including parts or all 
of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, Illinois, 
Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania 
New York, and the New England States. Much of the corn- 
belt is glacial soil. 

^olian soils. — Those soils that have been deposited by the 
action of the wind are called aeolian. The principal agricultural 
soil of this kind is loess, which is generally thought to be wind- 
blown material from accumulation of sediment carried and 
deposited by rivers in front of the prehistoric glaciers. Loess 
is found in great abundance in certain areas of the Mississippi, 
Missouri, and Ohio valleys. It is very rich and in the Central 
States is especially valuable for corn-growing. 

Sand dunes are wind-blown hills that are not valuable for 
farming purposes. They are coarse-grained, contain little 
organic matter and are constantly shifting from place to place. 

15. Classification of soil according to texture. — By tex- 
ture is meant the size of the soil particles. These vary from 
those that are invisible without the microscope to large rock 
fragments. Even a fine-grained garden soil is made up of 
several sizes of particles, which may be proved by stirring 
a small quantity in a tumbler of water and allowing it to settle. 
The coarser particles will settle at the bottom ; and the finer 
above them ; the very finest may not settle for several hours. 



Soils 35 

Often theire is a distinct banding of the layers of the different- 
sized particles. 

The particles of soil are designated according to size as clay, 
silt, sand, gravel, and stones. Scientists, for the purpose of 
making mechanical analyses of soils, have given arbitrary sizes 
to the various groups of soil materials and have found ways of 
determining the proportion of each of the different groups in soil 
samples. The Bureau of Soils of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture uses the following sizes : 

Clay — below .005 millimeter 

Silt — .05 to .005 milhmeter 

Very fine sand — .10 to .05 millimeter 

Fine sand — .25 to .10 millimeter 

Medium sand — .5 to .25 millimeter 

Coarse sand — 1 to .5 millimeter 

Very coarse sand — 2 to 1 millimeter 

In classifying soil according to texture, the same general 
terms are used as in designating the size of particles. Thus 
soil composed of a large proportion of clay is known as a clay 
soil, one made up largely of silt is a silty soil, one that is mostly 
sand is a sandy soil. Gravelly soil and stony soil are those with 
a predominance of these materials. The term loam is used 
also in describing soil texture. Aloamsoil is one in which fine 
and coarse particles are about equally distributed. If one 
size of particle predominates, for example fine sand, this name is 
prefixed. 

The texture of the soil cannot be modified by the farmer to 
any marked extent. Of course by mixing particles of different 
sizes together he can make a soil of different texture, but this 
is not practicable. The farmer, however, should study soil 
texture in order to determine the best utilization that can be 
made of each kind of soil. For example, it has been found that 
fine sandy loams are good trucking soils and that rich loam 
soils are usually well adapted to corn. 



36 Effective Farming 

16. Classification of soil according to rainfall. — The terms 
humid, arid, semi-arid, and semi-humid are employed to indi- 
cate the relative quantities of rainfall in localities, and these 
same terms are applied to the soils. A humid soil is one that 
receives on an average thirty inches or more of rainfall in a 
year ; an arid soil is one that receives less than ten inches ; a 
semi-arid soil is one that receives from ten to twenty inches; 
and a semi-humid soil is one that receives from twenty to thirty 
inches. The amount of rainfall naturally influences the crop 
production of a region, but as some soils do not have the prop- 
erty of retaining much water, it is also necessary that the rain- 
fall be distributed over the growing season, if crops are to 
prosper. 

17. Heavy and light soils. — The terms heavy and light, 
when applied to soils, refer to the ease with which they can be 
tilled, not to their weight. A soil that is hard to work and is 
sticky when wet is known as a heavy soil ; one that is easy to 
work and not sticky when wet is a light soil. Clays, clay loams, 
and muck soils are heavy ; sands, sandy loams, and loams are 
light soils. 

18. Structure of soil. — The term structure refers to the 
arrangement of soil particles, that is, the way they fit together. 
It is influenced not only by the texture, but also by the tillage 
the soil receives, by the quantity of moisture and humus in 
the soil, by the use of lime, and by the freezing of water in the 
soil. Three kinds of soil structure — separate-grained, puddled, 
and granular — are recognized. 

Separate-grained structure. — In a soil having a separate- 
grained structure, each particle exists free and does not cling to 
adjacent particles ; this condition is found in coarse, sandy soil. 

Puddled structure. — A puddled condition exists when a heavy 
soil becomes so packed when wet that the fine particles nearly 
fill the pore spaces between the coarse particles. The work- 
ing of a heavy soil or the tramping of it by live-stock when it is 
wet causes it to become puddled. A puddled soil after it dries 



Soils 37 

remains in hard clods that are difficult to reduce in size. The 
tilth of a heavy soil is often spoiled for a whole season or even 
longer by working it when it is too wet. 

Granular structure. — In a soil having a granular structure, 
the particles are cemented together in small grains. A fine- 
grained soil with this kind of structure is easily brought into 
good tilth. A loam soil is usually of a granular structure. 

Conditions affecting soil structure. — The operations of till- 
age have much to do with the structure of soil. The use of 
tillage implements tends to pulverize soil and to reduce it to a 
granular condition, provided the work is done when the soil 
contains the proper proportion of moisture. Notice the pul- 
verized condition of the soil shown in Fig. 15. As stated pre- 
viously, if a soil of fine texture is tilled when it is too wet, a 
puddled structure results. Also, a heavy soil, if plowed when 
it is too dry, does not pulverize well, but is likely to remain 
cloddy. 

Heavy soils, if subjected to alternate wetting and drying, 
become granular. The alternate expanding and contracting 
that occurs causes the soil to break into lines of fracture in all 
directions and this aids in the formation of the much desired 
granular structure. 

The proportion of humus in a soil has an influence on the 
structure. Humus is somewhat plastic and tends to bind the 
soil particles together ; in the case of a clay soil this helps to 
form a granular structure. 

Lime benefits the structure of a clay soil. It has a floccu- 
lating action, that is, the drawing together into granules of 
the fine particles of a soil mass. If quickhme is placed in water 
that contains soil particles in suspension, there is a change in 
arrangement of the particles. At first they draw together in 
groups that soon settle to the bottom of the vessel. This is 
flocculation. It occurs when lime is placed on a field and is 
one of the beneficial effects of such an application. 

Freezing and thawing of water in the soil influence soil 



38 



Effective Farming 



structure. The expansion of water when freezing is very great, 
and this force shatters clods of the soil, tending to promote 
a granular structure. Repeated freezing and thawing further 
break up the soil masses. A puddled soil is much benefited 




Fig. 15. — The plow is an efficient agent for pulverizing the soil. 



by a good freezing. In fact when a soil is puddled in the grow- 
ing season, it is often impossible to get it into good condition 
until after a heavy freeze. 

19. Functions of water in soil. — Water acts as a solvent 
of plant-foods. These must be in solution to be absorbed by 



Soils ■ 39 

plants. Water is taken up by the roots and either becomes part 
of the plant without change or it is decomposed and the ele- 
ments of which it is composed are available to become part of 
new compounds of the plant body. In addition water keeps 
the cells distended, transfers food from one part of the plant to 
another, and by evaporation from the leaves tends to equalize 
the temperature of the plant. 

Soil moisture is one of the limiting factors in crop produc- 
tion, for without sufficient water there can be no profitable 
crop growth. The quantity of water required by a growing 
crop is much larger than might be thought. The soil solutions 
taken up by roots are very dilute ; consequently large quanti- 
ties of water must be carried up into the plant for every pound 
of growth produced. In fact it has been found that in humid 
climates from two hundred to five hundred pounds of water 
are transpired from the leaves for every pound of dry plant 
material produced in a crop. In addition to the water taken 
up by the plants, there is much lost from the soil by run-off 
from the surface, by percolation to a depth below the reach 
of roots, and by evaporation from the surface. These condi- 
tions make it necessary in most sections to conserve the soil 
moisture. 

20. Forms of water in soil. — Water is held in the soil in 
three forms, known as hygroscopic, capillary, and gravita- 
tional water. 

Hygroscopic water. — This water is held as a very thin film 
around each soil particle ; it is absorbed from the air and con- 
densed on the surfaces of the soil particles. Even in very dry soil, 
this film-water surrounds each particle. The quantity increases 
according to the moisture-content of the air and there is more 
in fine-grained than in coarse-grained soil, because of the larger 
area of film-surface exposed. Also, the more humus in a soil, 
the greater is the quantity of hygroscopic water present. The 
moisture held hygroscopically in a soil cannot be absorbed by 
plants. In fact plants wilt for lack of water if only hygro- 



40 Effective Farming 

scopic water is present. However, it is of some use in hold- 
ing plant-food in solution. 

Capillary water. — As soon as the film of hygroscopic water 
is satisfied, a film of capillary water begins to form around the 
hygroscopic film and, as the moisture-content increases, capil- 
lary water moves from place to place in the soil in the same way 
that oil is carried through a lamp-wick. It occupies much of 
the pore space in the soil and moves in every direction, up, 
down, sidewise, from a wet portion to a dryer portion. When 
moisture is used by roots or is evaporated from the surface, 
capillary water moves to take the place of that removed. Capil- 
lary water may be defined as that water in the soil that moves 
from place to place by capillary force. It is the form of water 
taken up by roots ; consequently^ in productive soils it is neces- 
sary that abundant capillary water be present and that the 
soil be kept in a favorable condition for its transference. 

Gravitational water. — If the moisture-content of a soil is 
increased beyond a certain amount, a point is reached where 
the force of gravity on the soil-water is stronger than is tlie 
capillary force and, as a result, drops of water move downward. 
This movement is known as percolation and the water when it 
fills all the spaces is known as gravitational. Below a certain 
level, the soil is saturated with water. The distance of this 
water-level below the surface is determined by the rainfall, 
the condition of drainage, and the kind of soil. The top of 
the water in surface wells is the top of the gravitational water. 
Whenever capillary water becomes deficient, water from the 
water-level, unless this is too far below the surface of the soil, 
passes by capillary force to the dry portion. 

Water in percolating to the water-level carries much soluble 
plant-food out of reach of the roots. This is known as leach- 
ing and it is responsible for the loss of much plant-food annually. 
If the water-level is very near the surface, there is too limited 
a zone left for capillary water and growth cannot continue. 
The remedy for such a condition is drainage. 



Soils • 41 

21. Control of soil- water by cropping methods. — As may 
be inferred from the foregoing statements, the control of water 
is an important factor in keeping soil in the best condition for 
profitable crop production. The farmer can increase water for 
crops by reducing the loss due to run-off and to percolation, 
by reducing the quantity evaporated from the surface, and by 
improving the structure of the soil, thus making it possible for 
the soil to retain more water. 

Reducing run-off losses. — When land is rather impervious 
to water and in regions of hesivy rainfall, the amount of water 
lost by run-off from the surface may be excessive, if proper 




Fig. 16. — A badly washed field. 

precautions are not taken to reduce it. The loss is occasioned 
largely by the water not entering the soil. One remedy is 
proper cultivation. If the surface of the soil is hard and com- 
pact and all tillage operations are shallow, there is less oppor- 
tunity for water to enter than if the surface is loose and the soil 
has been cultivated to a good depth. 

On hilly land the quantity of water retained can be influenced 
by lajdng the furrows to encircle the hill, thus making it possible 
for the water to be retained on the surface until much of it 
has time to soak into the soil. This is known as contour 
plowing. In sections in which the soil washes readily, terraces, 
which are low ridges of earth encircling the slope at nearly 
a perfect level, are made on the slopes. Along these terraces 



42 Effective Farming 

the flow of water is decreased, consequently it has more time 
to soak into the soil. Moreover the decreased flow tends to 
lessen the amount of surface soil washed from the field. In 
many sections of the United States, the lack of proper terracing 
results in excessive soil washing, which becomes so serious in 
neglected or improperly farmed areas as to ruin fields. The 
result of excessive soil washing is pictured in Fig. 16. 

Reducing percolation losses. — The loss of water and soluble 
plant-food by percolation is greater in sandy soils, especially 
if they have an open subsoil, than in those of finer texture. To 
prevent this loss, the surface should be compacted with a roller 
or a subsurface packer. This has a tendency to reduce the rate 
of percolation of the water. It also reduces the size of the pore 
spaces, which increases the water-holding capacity of the soil. 

Reducing evaporation losses. — In humid climates it has been 
found that evaporation during the summer months may be 
as great as seventy-five per cent of the rainfall. This ex- 
cessive loss of water can be reduced by providing a mulch on 
the surface. A mulch is a protective covering on the soil 
made for the purpose of preventing loss by evaporation. It 
may be either artificial or natural. 

An artificial mulch is formed by spreading some such material 
as manure, straw, leaves, sawdust, and the like, over the sur- 
face of the soil. Mulches of this kind are very effective in re- 
ducing the loss due to evaporation, but their use is practicable 
only for small areas of high-priced crops, such as strawberries, 
bush-fruits, and some few kinds of vegetables. 

A natural mulch is formed by tilling the surface of the soil 
itself. This produces in the surface layer a loose, open struc- 
ture that obstructs capillary action. Such soil mulches are 
very effective in reducing the loss of soil moisture by evapora- 
tion. In humid regions and in arid regions where dry-farming 
is practiced, from two to three inches has been found the best 
average depth for soil mulches. In arid regions where the soil 
is irrigated, a greater depth can be used. For fruits a depth 



Soils 43 

as great as ten or twelve inches is effective. For shallow-rooted 
crops the depth must, of course, be decreased. Spike-tooth 
harrows and weeders (paragraphs 223 and 225) are satisfactory 
implements for forming mulches. After a rain the soil mulch 
must be renewed, especially on a heavy soil, because the rain 
has reestablished capillary communication between the lower 
layers of the soil and the surface. The mulch breaks up this 
communication . 

In the so-called dry-farming that is practiced in the semi-arid 
regions of the West, a soil mulch is maintained throughout the 
whole 3^ear to conserve moisture from the previous summer 
and winter as well as that of the crop-producing season. In 
humid regions soil mulches are very effective during dry periods 
in summer. In the case of hoed crops, they may conserve 
enough moisture to keep the plants growing normally during 
the periods of drought. Often the conserving of water for the 
use of plants during such periods may be an important factor 
in the crop result. During a drought in southern Illinois a 
few years ago, the author was shown two corn fields side by 
side ; one was suffering for the want of water and the other 
was thrifty and apparently well supplied with moisture. He 
was told that the only difference in the treatment of the fields 
was that one had been properly tilled to form a soil mulch and 
the other had not. 

Soil mulches, in addition to conserving moisture, improve the 
physical condition of soil and, as a result, increase its water- 
holding capacity, thus preventing losses due to run-off and 
percolation. The tillage removes weed growth, which means 
not only a saving of the plant-food that the roots absorb, but 
also the moisture. 

Improving soil structure to increase soil-water. — By practicing 
suitable tillage and by adding humus-forming matter, soil 
structure may be improved to increase the moisture-holding 
capacity. A clay soil, if worked at the proper time, is made 
more granular, and put into condition to retain more water. 



44 Effective Farming 

The addition of humus-forming materials, such as farm manure, 
green-manure, or muck, increases the capacity of a soil, espe- 
cially if it is sandy, to retain water. Humus has the power of 
absorbing and retaining water and when added to soil increases 
the water-content. Humus also reduces the size of many of 
the pore spaces, and, in the case of a sandy soil, results in a 
finer soil that is more retentive of water. 

22. Irrigation. — In arid and semi-arid regions irrigation, or 
the artificial supplying of water to soil, is necessary for crop 
production. In these regions large irrigation systems that 
supply vast areas are installed and water rights are sold with 
the property, for without the water the land is practically worth- 
less for crop production. 

In humid regions irrigation is sometimes practicable, for 
in certain sections the rainfall is so distributed that periods of 
drought are likely to occur during the growing season with a 
consequent complete or partial loss of the crop. Vegetable- 
gardens, nurseries, small-fruit plantations, and greenhouses 
are often irrigated, but for less intensive farming the supplying 
of water artificially is not often profitable. 

In general, four methods are in use for distributing water in 
irrigation. These are overhead irrigation, sub-irrigation, flood- 
ing, and furrow irrigation. 

Overhead irrigation. — In humid regions overhead irrigation 
is used largely for watering market-garden crops, fruit crops, 
and in greenhouses. A system of overhead pipes is arranged in 
parallel lines across the area to be irrigated. These pipes, 
which are fitted with small holes at regular intervals, are con- 
nected with a water-supply system and water is delivered to 
them under pressure. The holes in the pipes are fitted with 
small nozzles that cause the water passing through them to 
break into a spray, thus preventing the packing of the soil 
that would result were the water to reach the ground as a stream. 
Fig. 17 shows an irrigated garden of the Irrigated Farms Com- 
pany near Trenton, New Jersey. 



Soils 



45 



Sub-irrigation. — The distributing of water through pipes 
or Hues of tile placed underneath the surface of the ground 
is called sub-irrigation. Perforations in the pipe or joints be- 
tween the tile allow the water to pass into the soil. It is carried 
to the roots by capillary attraction. This method is used in 
humid climates and is applicable to shallow-rooted crops. One 
difficulty is that the pipes are likely to become clogged by roots. 




Fig. 17. — Vegetables grown under irrigation. 

When a soil is sandy and is underlaid at a depth of three or four 
feet by a stratum of clay, conditions are favorable for the in- 
stallation of a sub-irrigation system, because the soil can be 
saturated and the pipes emptied quickly. Since the pipes 
are usually empty, the roots do not enter them as they would 
if they held water for a greater part of the time. This system 
is used largely in truck-farming. In the vicinit}^ of Sanford, 
Florida, it has been extensively employed for irrigating soil 
used for celery and other vegetable crops. 



46 



Effective Farming 



Flooding. — The method termed flooding is employed 
principally for watering grain fields. When a field is to be wa- 
tered, the area is covered with a sheet of water from the supply- 
ditch which is elevated above the level of the field. This 
method is used chiefly in arid and semi-arid regions. 

Furrow irrigation. — In furrow irrigation, the water from 
the supply-ditch is conducted into furrows that have been 
plowed across the land. The water in the furrows will 

soak into the soil 
by capillary force un- 
til the whole area 
has been watered. 
This system is espe- 
cially applicable to 
fruits and vegetables 
and is largely em- 
ployed in the western 
part of the United 
States, although it is 
found installed in a 
few places in the 
East and Southeast. 
In Fig. 18 is shown 
a section of an orange 
grove in California 
watered by furrow 
irrigation. 

23. Soil drainage. — Lowering the water-level by drainage 
is the farmer's method of reducing the quantity of water in 
the soil. There are many large areas of land in the United 
States that are practically worthless for farming because of too 
much water and by the installation of proper drainage-systems 
many such areas could be made to produce abundant crops. 
On many farms there are low wet places that, if drained, could 
be used to increase the tillable land. Drained land is usually 




Fig. 18. — Furrow irrigation in a California 
citrus grove. 



Soils 



47 



very valuable for cropping purposes, as fertile soil from higher 
localities has generally been washed down to the low areas for 
a long time before draining. If the place is swampy, vegeta- 
tion may have been accumulating and decaying for years, thus 
forming muck, an extremely valuable soil type for certain 
crops. There are two methods employed in land drainage, 
(1) the open-ditch method, and (2) the underdrainage method. 
Open-ditch drainage. — When land is so level that very little 
grade from the beginning of the ditch to the outlet is possible, 
open-ditch drainage is employed to lower the water-level. 
Fig. 19 shows such a 
ditch on level land 
in New Jersey. Open 
ditches are objec- 
tionable and are not 
used when under- 
drainage can be em- 
ployed. They oc- 
cupy land that, if 
underdrained, could 
be tilled, they inter- 
fere with the tillage 
and other cropping 
operations of the 
farm, the ditch 
banks promote the 
growth of weeds, 
and the ditches must be cleaned out periodically, which is an 
expense not necessary with underdrains. However, with all 
these objections, open ditches are useful and can often be em- 
ployed profitably where underdrainage is not practicable. Large 
areas of level muck land can often be effectively drained by 
means of open ditches that could not possibly be drained by 
any other method. This is the condition of the land shown 
in Fig. 19. 




Fig. 19. 



An open drainage ditch in muck soil 
in New Jersey. 



48 Effective Farming 

Under drainage. — Usually in underdrainage, short sections 
of burned clay tile are placed end to end in a ditch which is 
immediately filled with earth. Thus the land above the tile 
can be farmed. Before laying the tile, the bottom of the ditch 
is smoothed and accurately graded. The water enters the 
tile through the joints and, encountering a smooth channel, 
flows to the outlet. Tile drains operate best if the grade is 
one or two feet in a hundred, but they will operate satisfactorily 
if the grade is only three or four inches in a hundred feet, pro- 
vided it is uniform. The depths of drains should be from two 
feet for a clay loam or other moderately heavy soil to three and 
one-half feet for an open soil like a sandy or gravelly loam. 
The penetration of roots in clay loam is less deep than in the 
more open soil. The distance between the drains is governed 
largely by the kind of soil and its wetness. For general farm- 
ing, there should never be more than one hundred feet between 
the drains ; if the soil is heavy and badly in need of drainage the 
distance should be much less. The outlet of the ditch usually 
requires protection. The tile here are often exposed and, to 
avoid breakage, a length of iron pipe can be used advanta- 
geously in place of the last few tile or the outlet can be pro- 
tected by a wall of masonry. 

24. Air in soil. — Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen of 
soil air are needed in plant growth. Oxygen must be pres- 
ent, as seed will not sprout nor plants grow without it. A 
soil saturated with gravitational water does not contain oxy- 
gen, because the water has crowded out the air and occupies 
all the pore spaces. A plant kept even for a relatively short 
time in a water-logged soil will die for want of oxygen about 
its roots. Water standing on a field for even a few days is 
likely to result in the loss of the crop. 

The oxygen is also needed for the oxidation of the organic 
matter in the formation of humus. If this did not take place 
in the soil, there would soon be more undecayed organic matter 
than live plants on the earth. A sod turned under in a soil 



Soils - 49 

that is in need of surface drainage will not decay for several 
years, due to the absence of air, but sod turned under in a well- 
aerated soil will decay in a few months. 

The carbon dioxide of the soil air gets into the water of the 
soil, where it aids in making plant-food more readily soluble. 
Water containing carbon dioxide is a much better solvent of 
plant-food than is pure water. 

The nitrogen of the soil air is needed in the life process of 
the bacteria that live in the soil and on the roots of the 
legumes — clover, peas, and the like. Some of these bacteria 
take free nitrogen from the air and convert it into soluble forms 
that are available as plant-food. Free nitrogen cannot be taken 
up as food by roots until it has been combined with certain 
elements to form a soluble compound. 

All the tillage practices aerate the soil. Thus one of the 
benefits of tillage is to increase the quantity of air. 

25. Bacteria in soil. — The minute organisms known as 
bacteria form a very essential contituent of soil. In fact if 
there were no bacteria in soil, there would be no plant growth. 
A very important effect of bacteria in soil is the decay of or- 
ganic matter to form humus. Bacteria also have an effect on 
the amount of nitrogen that is available in soils. Nitrogen 
of organic matter is made available by the process of nitrifica- 
tion. In this process the work of three forms of bacteria is 
necessary; the first form changes the organic nitrogenous 
compounds into ammonia, the second, changes the ammonia 
into compounds called nitrites, and the third, changes the 
nitrites into nitrates. These compounds are available as plant- 
food and in this form the nitrogen is useful to most crops. 

What is termed denitrification sometimes takes place in soils 
This is an undesirable process, the reverse of nitrification, and 
is the work of bacteria that change the nitrates into nitrites. 
From nitrites other bacteria are likely to change the compounds 
into ammonia and finally into free nitrogen, which means a 
loss of nitrogen that had been available as plant-food. It has 



50 



Effective Farming 



been found, however, that, if the soil is kept in good physical 
condition and is well drained, denitrification probably will 
not occur. This, then, is another reason for handling the soil 

^^ , in a manner to keep 
it in good tilth. 

As stated in para- 
graph 24, bacteria 
that Hve on the roots 
of legumes are able 
to take nitrogen from 
the air and convert 
it into a soluble 
form. On the roots 
of legumes that are 
growing under f avor- 
able conditions, 
there are tubercules, 
or knots (Fig. 20). 
In these live the bac- 
teria that do the 
work of changing the 
nitrogen into a solu- 
ble form. The bac- 
teria receive food 
from the plant on 
which they are found 
and in turn benefit 
their hosts by mak- 
ing the nitrogen solu- 




FiG. 20. — Cowpea root showing tubercles. 



ble. If the legumes are properly inoculated with bacteria, some 
of the nitrogen may remain for crops that grow later in the soil. 
Thus the land on which clovers or other legumes are growing 
is richer in nitrogen than before the crop was planted. This 
accounts for the good crops that usually follow legumes on 
a field. Legumes are often planted and, instead of being 



Soils 51 

harvested, are plowed underneath the soil to enrich it. Such 
a crop is known as a green-manure. (See paragraph 27.) 

Each kind of legume seems to have its own particular kind 
of bacteria on the roots of the plants. If the right sort of 
bacteria is not present in the soil, the crop will not receive the 
benefit of the added available nitrogen, for no bacteria will 
be found on the roots of the plants to change the free nitrogen. 
The bacteria multiply so rapidly, however, that a field can 
easily be inoculated with the proper species of bacteria. This 
is accomplished, provided tubercules are found on the plants, 
by spreading, on the land to be inoculated, soil from a field where 
the same kind of crop has been growing. About five or six 
bushels of soil to the acre is sufficient, if it is spread thinly 
and harrowed well into the soil at once. The spreading 
should be done on a dark cloudy day or after sundown, be- 
cause sunshine kills bacteria. Pure cultures of bacteria for 
inoculating the seed of legumes can be obtained from seeds- 
men and in small quantities from the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. These cultures are mixed with water 
and spread over the seed, which is to be planted and, in this 
way, the bacteria are carried into the soil. 



QUESTIONS 

1. What is soil and of what is it composed? 

2. What are the benefits of humus in the soil? 

3. Distinguish between residual and cumulose soils. 

4. What is a humid soil, a light soil, a loam, a silty soil? 

5. Explain the three so-called forms of soil-water. 

6. Tell ways in which the farmer can increase the moisture-con- 
tent of his soil. 

7. Of what use is a soil mulch ? 

8. Under what conditions is irrigation practicable in humid cli- 
mates ? 

9. Why is air needed in a soil? 

10. How does a crop of clover benefit the land? 

11. Distinguish between soil texture and soil structure. 



52 



Effective Farming 



EXERCISES 



&WS*=-:^ 



1. Soil constituents. — Place a handful of loam in a tall bottle or 
a mason jar ; nearly fill the vessel with water and shake for several 
seconds, then allow the soil to settle. What can you say of the sizes 
of the mineral particles of this soil? 

Also, place a few grains of rich garden soil on an asbestos-covered 
screen and heat until the soil becomes red hot. Does an odor result? 
What are you burning out of the soil ? 

2. Types of soil. — Write to the Chief of the Bureau of Soils at 
Washington for a soil survey pamphlet of your county, if one has 
been issued. Study the maps and descriptions in this pamphlet. 
Visit, if possible, each of the soil types and collect samples and classify 
them according to name. Examine each of the soil types for color and 
texture. What kinds of crops are usually grown on each soil type? 
Were you choosing a farm in your county which type would you select ? 

3. Water in soil. — Place a small quantity of air-dry soil in a test 
tube and heat carefully over a gas or alcohol flame. Moisture will 

collect on the sides of the tube. This mois- 
ture was held largely in the soil as hygroscopic 
water. 

Arrange four lamp chimneys as shown in 
Fig. 21. Using two of the chimneys, place 
dry clay soil in one and dry sand in the other 
so that the soil stands at the same height in 
both of them. Place empty tumblers beneath 
each and pour the same quantity of water 
into the tops. Record the time required for water to drip from each 
tube. What force caused the water to percolate? What form of soil- 
water dripped from the tubes ? Compute the water in each tube after 
dripping has ceased. Which soil retained the more water? 

Arrange the other tubes as just directed and place the bottom of 
each in a tumbler partly filled with water. Record the time necessary 
for moisture to reach the top in each kind of soil. What force caused 
the water to rise against gravity ? What form of soil- water is in these 
tubes ? How much water was taken into the soil in each tube ? Try 
this experiment with long glass tubes. Explain the results. 

Place a quantity of sand in a pan and gradually let water drop on 
the sand at one side of the pan. Eventually, all the soil in the pan be- 
comes wet. What force carries the water? 

4. Soil mulch. — Place sand in two chimneys and on the sand in 
one place a layer of fine, dry soil. Leave the other uncovered. Place 




Fig. 21. — Apparatus for 
soil exercises with wat:r. 



Soils 53 

the bottoms in water and observe what happens when the moisture 
reaches the fine soil. Of what use is a soil mulch? 

5. Influence of lime on soil structure. — Make four wooden molds 
one inch by one inch by four inches. Fit a layer of cheese-cloth into 
each allowing an inch or so to stick out from the sides. Weigh out four 
one hundred-gram lots of dry clay soil. To one lot add one gram of 
caustic lime ; to a second lot, five grams ; to a third lot, ten grams ; add 
no lime to the fourth. Mix the lime and the clay. To each sample 
add just enough water to make the soil plastic and press the four lots 
of soil into the four molds. Remove each lot from the mold, being 
careful to retain the shape. As soon as you take them from the mold, 
mark a number on each brick to designate it. Put the bricks away to 
dry. When thoroughly dry, break them into pieces and observe the 
difference in the ease of breaking. What effect does the application of 
lime have on the structure of a clay soil? 

6. Air in soil. — Place some soil in a tumbler and pour water on it 
until a small quantity stands over the surface. Notice the bubbles 
passing through the water. These are bubbles of air caused by the 
water displacing the air in the soil. Get two tin cans of the same size. 
Punch holes in the bottom of one and not in the other. Put soil in the 
cans to within an inch of the top and plant six grains of wheat in each 
can. Keep the soil in one can saturated with water and in the other 
one moist, but not too wet. The seeds will not sprout in the very 
wet soil. Why is this ? 

Saturate the soil in a tumbler in which a healthy plant is growing. 
Keep the soil wet. Observe results. What is the condition of the 
soil? What does it lack that is needed by a growing plant? 

REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. VI, pp. 320- 

353. The Macmillan Co. 
Snyder, Harry, Soils and Fertilizer. The Macmillan Co. 
Lyon, Fippin, and Buckman, Soils, their Properties and Management. 

The Macmillan Co. 
Lyon, T. L., Soils and Fertilizers. The Macmillan Co. 
Bm-kett, C. W., Soils. Orange Judd Co. 
King, F. H., The Soil. The Macmillan Co. • 

Hopkins, C. G., Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture. Ginn & Co. 
Fletcher, S. W., Soils. Doubleday, Page & Co. 
Hall, A. D., The Soil. Button and Co. 
Whiting, A. L., Soil Biology Manual. Wiley and Sons. 



54 Effective Farming 

McCall, A. G., Studies of Soils. Wiley and Sons. 

Mosier, J. G., and Gustafson, A. F., Soil Physics and Management. 

J. B. Lippincott Co. 
WMtson, A. R., and Walster, H. L., Soils and Soil Fertility. Webb 

Publishing Co. 
Hunt, T. F., and Burkett, C. W., Soils and Crops. Orange Judd Co. 
Massey, W. F., Practical Farming. A. C. McClurg & Co. 
Voorhees, Edward B., Principles of Agriculture. Silver, Burdett and 

Company. 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 

94, The Mangum Terrace and its Relation to Efficient Farm 

Mariagement. 
U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 512, Prevention of the 

Erosion of Farm Lands by Terracing. 
Farmers' Bulletin 524, Tile Drainage on the Farm. 
Farmers' Bulletin 761, Management of Muck Land Farms. 



CHAPTER IV 

SOIL FERTILITY 

The food elements of plants. 

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. 
Maintaining the plant-food supply. 
Removal of plant-food from the soil. 
Benefits of crop rotation. 
Feeding live-stock in relation to soil fertility. 

Green-Manure 
Use of green-manure crops. 
Crops used for green-manure. 

Red clover, crimson clover, cowpeas, soybeans, vetches, Canada 
field peas, velvet beans, beggarweed, bur clover, rye, 
buckwheat. 

Farm Manure 
Importance of farm manure. 
Kinds of farm manure. 

Horse, cow, hog, sheep, poultry. 
Composition and character of farm manure. 

Influence of litter. 

Influence of class of animal. 

Influence of age of animal. 

Influence of kind of work done by animaL 

Influence of feed. 

Losses due to improper handling. 
Methods of handling manure. 

Hauling manure direct to the field. 

Use of a concrete pit. 

Use of a covered barnyard. 

Allowing manure to accumulate in stalls. 
Methods of applying manure. 

The handling of the soil in respect to its fertility we are to 
learn in this chapter, discussed in such subjects as the plant- 
food elements, rotation of crops, the saving and application of 

55 



56 . Effective Farming 

stable manures, the growing of green-manure crops. We 
consider here what may be called the home practices and sup- 
plies. To supply humus is one of the great necessities in 
farming, as well as to add directly to the plant-food content 
of the soil. The element of conservation, or saving, is also 
very important, for we cannot make headway if we neglect 
or waste the materials produced on the farm. The soil and 
the live-stock can utilize most of the wastes and the materials 
not sent directly to the market or used as food for human 
beings and animals. 

26. The food elements of plants. — In order that normal 
crops may be produced, all of the food elements to be taken 
up by the plants must be present in the soil and in an available 
form to be absorbed by the roots. Investigation has shown 
that only three of these elements in the soil, — nitrogen, phos- 
phorus, and potassium, — are likely to be low in amount. A 
study of these elements, therefore, is of importance to farmers, 
for if any one of them becomes deficient, profitable crop 
production cannot possibly continue on that soil. These 
three elements are contained in fertilizers and barnyard ma- 
nure. They are among the foods taken up by plants from the 
soil ; consequently, whenever weeds, stubble, or crops grown 
for the purpose are turned underneath the furrow-slice, the 
food in the plants is returned to the soil. 

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. — Nitrogen is usually 
taken up by plants in the nitrate form. Plants like rice that 
grow on soil covered with water can utilize ammonia. It has 
recently been shown, too, that some crops use nitrogenous or- 
ganic matter. Phosphorus and potassium are found in soil in 
mineral compounds. Many of these are almost insoluble, but 
they change slowly into soluble compounds, thus becoming 
available as plant-food. 

Unfortunately there is no uniformity in the terms used to 
express the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content of 
soils, manures, and fertilizers. In some instances the names 



Soil Fertility 57 

of the elements are used, and in others the terms ammonia, 
phosphoric acid, and potash. 

Ammonia is a compound made up of nitrogen and hydrogen, 
of which 82.3 per cent is nitrogen. To convert a number repre- 
senting ammonia into terms of nitrogen, multiply by .823 ; 
and to convert a number representing nitrogen into terms of 
ammonia divide by .823 (or multiply by 1.215). (See para- 
graph 41.) 

When the term phosphoric acid is used, it does not have 
reference to the common chemical by that name, but to a 
substance known as phosphoric anhydride, or phosphorus pen- 
toxide, which contains 43.66 per cent of phosphorus. To con- 
vert a number representing phosphoric acid into terms of phos- 
phorus multipl}^ by .4366 and to convert a number representing 
phosphorus into terms of phosphoric acid divide by .4366 (or 
multiply by 2.29). 

The term potash refers to potassium oxide, a compound 
that contains 83 per cent potassium. To convert a number 
representing potash into terms of potassium multiply by .83, 
and to convert a number representing potassium into terms 
of potash divide by .83 (or multiply by 1.024). 

Formerly the names of the compounds were most often used, 
but the tendency of late is to use the names of the elements. 
This latter method is much simpler. In some states the fer- 
tilizer laws (paragraph 40) require that the phosphorus and 
potassium content of fertilizers be expressed in the terms of 
the elements ; in other states they must be expressed in terms 
of the compounds. 

Maintaining the plant-food supply. — In most virgin soils 
the supply of plant-food is comparatively large and crops 
can be grown for a number of years without returning any to 
the soil. As crops continue to be removed, however, the 
store of plant-food becomes less and less until finally the yields 
decrease so much that, unless some rational farming practice 
is adopted, the soil will wear out. Some virgin soils are 



58 Effective Farming 

richer than others and will last longer, but even very rich 
soils will wear out in time unless the supply of plant-food is 
replenished. 

The growing of legumes is one method of helping to main- 
tain soil fertility, but, as the legumes are instrumental in adding 
only nitrogen to the soil, some other way must be found 
to supply phosphorus and potassium. To this end certain 
fertihzer materials containing these elements must be added 
to the soil. A list and descriptions of these are given on sub- 
sequent pages. 

Investigation by means of chemical analyses and practical 
field tests can determine whether or not certain elements are 
lacking in a soil. The experiment stations in most states have 
made these tests for the important soil types and their officers 
are able and willing to give information about the various needs 
of the soils in their state. Often it will pay farmers to write 
to these men concerning the best practice to follow in main- 
taining the fertility of their .farms. 

Removal of plant-food from the soil. — Plant-food is removed 
from the soil in several ways, chiefly by cropping, by soil 
washing, and by leaching. A hundred-bushel crop of corn will 
remove from an acre approximately 148 pounds of nitrogen, 
23 pounds of phosphorus, and 71 pounds of potassium. A 
fifty-bushel crop of wheat requires 71 pounds of nitrogen, 12 
pounds of phosphorus, and 13 pounds of potassium. A four- 
ton crop of red clover takes 160 pounds of nitrogen, 20 pounds 
of phosphorus, and 120 pounds of potassium. From these 
figures it will be seen that cropping, with the plants sold off 
the farm, will soon remove much plant-food from the soil. 
It has also been determined that only about 2 per cent of the 
nitrogen, 1 per cent of the phosphorus, and ^ per cent of the 
potassium in a soil is likely to be available for a crop in a season. 
Experiments show that in one of the rich soil types of Illinois, 
if hundred-bushel corn crops were removed each year, there 
would be nitrogen enough in the soil to last thirty-four years ; 



Soil Fertility 59 

and in a certain soil in Maryland, if hundred-bushel corn crops 
were removed from the soil, there would be a supply of nitrogen 
for only nine years. Cropping of land without returning plant- 
food to the soil is not good farming. 

The washing of the soil removes much plant-food. It is 
the top soil, the part richest in humus and plant-food, that is 
carried away. Some soils wash more readily than others ; 
those containing a large proportion of silt and fine sand wash 
very badly. Soils in the Southern States wash readily, largely 
because washing may occur during the entire winter as well as 
during other seasons. Many soils in that section, also, are of a 
texture that causes them to wash readily. Cover-cropping 
and terracing will help to prevent this. In the Southern 
States it is possible to have a crop growing on the soil all winter, 
which helps to hold the soil from washing and stores fertility 
in the plants. These plants can be cut for forage or be turned 
under in the spring to supply humus and, if the crop is a legume, 
nitrogen is added to the soil. 

Terracing to prevent washing is necessary on many farms. 
To be effective, the terraces should be covered with vegetation ; 
otherwise they may be quickly washed away. Grass is usually 
employed as a covering. One grower in South Carolina plants 
strawberries on his terraces and makes the crop profitable. 

Soluble foods are leached out of the soil. The lo§s in this 
way is large in some soils, especially in those of a sandy nature. 
One way to prevent loss by leaching is to grow a crop on the 
soil to use up the food before it leaches away. Cover-crops 
are useful for this purpose. More loss from leaching occurs 
in warm climates than in cold, because freezing of the ground 
prevents leaching. This, therefore, is another reason why the 
farmers of the South should use winter cover-crops. 

Benefits of crop rotation. — Experience teaches that the con- 
tinuous growing of the same kind of crop, such as cotton, corn, 
wheat, on the same land year after year results in the decrease 
of the soil products. Rotation of crops should be practiced. 



60 Effective Farming 

In the northwestern part of the United States where wheat 
has been grown continually on certain areas for more than 
twenty years, these pieces are no longer profitable for wheat 
and some other crop must be planted at least once every two 
or three years. In the Central States where corn is the prin- 
cipal crop, farmers have been able to continue raising this 
grain by alternating it with some cereal crop, such as oats or 
wheat. However, many progressive farmers in these regions 
now include a legume on each piece of ground at stated inter- 
vals and find that this method pays. In the cotton states 
where the continual cropping of cotton has been practiced 
a long time, planters are beginning to realize that they can 
grow a larger product if they plant some other crop on the 
land at intervals. Crimson clover, cowpeas, soybeans, velvet 
beans, and corn are excellent crops to go with cotton. 

Rotation makes it possible to plant crops having different 
length of root systems. For example, red clover, which has 
deep tap-roots, and grains, which have fibrous roots, may be 
planted in a crop rotation. Also, plants that make their chief 
growth at different times of the year may be planted ; wheat, 
for example, grows principally in early summer and corn in 
the late summer. 

Rotation of crops helps to control weeds. In grain fields 
weeds are usually destroyed when the ground is put into grass ; 
a hoed crop like corn gets rid of weeds that may have been a 
pest in the field when it was planted to other crops. 

Insect pests may be combated by changing the crop, for 
certain insects will migrate or starve if their favorite food is 
removed. For example the corn root-worm often becomes very 
troublesome when land is continually cropped in corn, but this 
pest can be practically destroyed by cropping the land in other 
plants for a few years. 

Another advantage of rotation is that one or more legumes 
can be included in the rotation. Even if the plants are not 
plowed under for green-manure, which is often practicable, 



Soil Fertility 61 

nevertheless they add some nitrogen to the soil. In all sec- 
tions of the country legumes suited to the particular soil and 
climatic conditions can be found and many progressive farmers 
are now helping to maintain the fertility of their soils by plant- 
ing legumes for green-manure, for hay, for pasturage, or for 
seeds. 

Feeding live-stock in relation to soil fertility. — A business- 
like method of returning to the soil the fertihty taken up by 
crops is to feed these crops to live-stock, save the manure care- 
fully to prevent excessive loss of plant-food, and place the 
manure on the soil. Only part of the plant-food and organic 
matter of the feed remains in the animal body ; the remainder 
is excreted in the manure. On many live-stock farms much 
feed for the animals is purchased and the fertilizer elements 
thus brought to the farm are recovered in part in the manure. 
If legumes are in the rotation on live-stock farms and the feed 
grown together with that purchased are fed and the manure 
saved, it is possible to maintain the nitrogen and organic 
supply of the soil. In some cases the mineral elements — 
phosphorus and potassium — may need to be purchased, but, 
as these are not usually expensive in normal times, the cost of 
maintaining the fertility of the soil on such farms is not ex- 
cessive. 

GREEN-MANURE 

27. Use of green-manure crops. — A green-manure crop 
may be defined as one planted for the purpose of plowing under. 
Crops plowed under help to maintain fertility and humus 
and also act as cover-crops, thus preventing excessive soil 
washing and plant-food leaching. Often the most economical 
way of building up a piece of poor land is to devote it entirely 
to green-manure for a year or more. In carrying out such a 
practice legumes should be used, and it will probably be well 
to use some fertilizer containing phosphorus and potassium 
in order that the foods in the soil will be balanced after nitro- 
gen has been added by the legumes. 



62 Effective Farming 

Legumes are the most satisfactory plants for green-manure ; 
they make a good growth of foUage, add nitrogen to the soil, 
and their roots, in most varieties, reach down deep and bring 
up food that would not be obtained by shallow-rooted crops. 
The cheapest way to secure nitrogen is to plant legumes and 
turn the crop under. Nitrogen, if purchased in commercial 
fertilizers, costs from fifteen to thirty cents or more a pound ; 
in legumes it often costs the farmer less than three cents a 
pound. Each section of the country has legumes that can 
be grown profitably as green-manure. In Fig. 22 is shown 
the result of the growth of corn on different plots of ground 
at the Rhode Island Experiment Station. The plots were 
different only in the green-manure crop, the kind and quantity 
of fertilizer used on each of the plots being the same. Notice 
that the smallest growth was where no green-manure crop 
was used, that the next largest was where rye, a grain, was 
planted, and that the best results were obtained where a 
legume was grown. 

28. Crops used for green-manure. — The crops listed in 
the next few paragraphs are the ones chiefly used for green- 
manure. In addition to these, however, there are many crops 
of local importance that give very good satisfaction. One 
should always use a crop that does well in the region where it 
is to be grown. 

Red clover. — Although red clover is more often used for 
hay than for green-manure, it is, nevertheless, very satisfac- 
tory for the latter purpose. It is a northern- grown crop. 
The seed is often sown in July or August, eight to ten pounds 
of seed to the acre giving a good stand. The clover may be 
plowed under the following spring or a crop may be mowed 
about the first of June, the second crop allowed to grow, and 
the plants plowed under in the fall or spring. 

Crimson clover. — This clover is a desirable crop for the east- 
ern part of the country from Delaware southward. It does 
not do well in the North. In the South the seeds are sown 



Soil Fertility 



63 




Fig. 22. — Benefits of green-manuring, a, corn grown with a leguminous cover- 
crop ; b, grown without a cover-crop ; c, grown with a rye cover-crop. 



64 Effective Farming 

about August or September. In the middle sections, as in 
Maryland, the seeding may be done in July^. The plants are 
usually plowed under in the spring, but in some sections they 
are allowed to produce seed and are plowed under the next 
fall after planting. The usual acre-rate of seeding is from twelve 
to twenty pounds. 

Cowpeas. — Especially in the South, cowpeas are used ex- 
tensively for green-manure. The plants produce a large 
quantity of fohage ; consequently they return much humus 
to the soil. The seeding may be done in the spring as soon 
as danger from frost is over or may be delayed until early 
summer. The plants will then be ready for plowing under 
either early or late in the fall. Usually two bushels of seed 
are planted to the acre, although some growers plant only 
one and secure a good stand. 

Soybeans. — Like cowpeas, soybeans make a good growth 
of foliage and are very often used for green-manure. They 
can be grown farther north and are usually found north of 
Kentucky and Kansas, but they do well in the South, also. 
They are about equal to red clover in the quantity of nitrogen 
added to the soil. The seed should not be planted until all 
danger of frost is past, the usual time being about when corn 
planting is finished. From a bushel to a bushel and a half of 
seed are sown to the acre, the large-seeded varieties requiring 
the larger quantity. 

Vetches. — Although there are several kinds of vetches, 
only the hairy vetch and the common spring vetch are much 
planted in America. The hairy vetch is known also as sand 
and as winter vetch. It is a hardy plant and is grown as a 
winter and a summer crop both in the North and South. The 
seed is sown in summer or fall when used as a winter crop and 
in spring when used as a summer crop. The plant has a trail- 
ing habit and it easily becomes matted on the ground. This 
makes it difficult to turn under. To obviate this difficulty, 
the seed is usually planted with rye, oats, or some other grain. 



Soil Fertility 65 

as the stems of the grain prevent much of the matting together 
of the vines. From twenty-five to thirty pounds of vetch 
and four pecks of grain is the usual seeding. Spring vetch 
is similar to hairy vetch in appearance and growth. It 
requires a cool chmate, and is grown as a spring-planted crop 
in the North and as a fall-planted crop in the South and the 
Pacific Coast States. The crop is used most extensively 
where it can be planted in the fall and is preferred by many 
to hairy vetch. The usual range of planting is from September 
to November. The seed is often planted with oats. The 
rate of planting varies from forty to sixty pounds of vetch 
to an equal weight of oats. In the California citrus regions, 
common vetch is planted with barley as a winter cover-crop. 
The usual rate of seeding is thirty pounds of vetch and thirty 
pounds of barley. The seeds of common vetch are somewhat 
larger than those of hairy vetch, which accounts for the dif- 
ference in the rate of seeding. 

Canada field peas. — In Canada and the northern part of 
the United States, Canada field peas are much used as a green- 
manure crop. They are well adapted to a cool, moist climate 
and make the best growth in the spring and early summer. 
They are usually planted with oats. The rate of seeding 
varies in different sections from one to two bushels of peas 
to one to two bushels of oats. The seed should be planted as 
early in the spring as the ground can be prepared. Field peas 
are used as a fall-sown crop in California. From eighty to 
ninety pounds of seed are sown to the acre. 

Velvet beans. — Especially in the citrus growing sections of 
Florida and also to some extent farther north, velvet beans 
are planted for green-manure. They make a dense growth of 
foliage and in a grove care must be taken that the vines do 
not get into the trees, for they may entwine among the branches 
to such an extent as to become a nuisance. A few rows of 
corn are often planted to provide stems on which the plants 
can climb. In Florida the seed is sown any time from the 

F 



66 Effective Farming 

middle of April to the last of May. The usual method of 
planting is in rows four feet apart and two feet apart in the 
row. A space of eight feet is left unplanted along the tree- 
row on account of the climbing habit of the vines. A peck of 
seed will plant an acre. In the light soils of Florida practice 
shows that the vines should be dry and partly rotted before 
they are plowed under. If they are plowed under when green, 
an acid condition of the soil unfavorable to the trees may 
result. October is the usual time for turning the soil. In 
the northern part of Florida early frosts will kill the vines and 
they will be dead when it is time to plow them under. In the 
southern and central parts the vines should be cut with a 
mowing machine early in the fall in order that they will be 
dead when the land is plowed. In sections farther north the 
beans are often planted with corn at the second working of 
the field. Their use in these sections is increasing. 

Beggarweed. — In Florida .beggarweed is used for green- 
manuring in citrus groves. It is a strong-growing plant that 
does well in all parts of the state. When once planted it will 
reseed itself, if it is not cut too early in the summer. About 
eight pounds of seed to the acre are sown between the tree rows 
about May 15. The plants should be cut when they come 
into bloom and left on the ground to enrich the soil. The 
stubble left will shoot out and produce another crop. The 
second crop is allowed to make seed. 

Bur clover. — " Bur clover alone is commonly used as a 
green-manure crop in the orchards of California and is often 
so handled that good volunteer crops are obtained year after 
year. 

" In the South, undoubtedly the greatest value of bur clover 
is due to the fact that it is the cheapest and most easily handled 
legume that can be used as a combination cover and green- 
manure crop. Even where it makes a small growth of only 
a few inches in height, this is sufficient to prevent to a large 
degree the washi-ng of the land in winter and when plowed 



Soil Fertility 67 

under to add sufficient humus and nitrogen to improve mate- 
rially the following cotton crop. It is the most economical 
legume to use for this purpose, as when once a stand has been 
secured and rows of the plants are left to seed it will volunteer 
from year to year. The same method can be used with corn 
or any other intertilled summer crop. There is some diffi- 
culty in seeding bur clover in standing cotton, as in the harrow- 
ing of the bur clover seed some of the ripe cotton is pulled out 
of the bolls. On this account the harrowing should be done 
just after the pickers have been through the field, to avoid as 
far as possible any injury to the opened bolls." — From Farm- 
ers' Bulletin 693. 

Rye and buckwheat. — Crops other than legumes are some- 
times grown for green-manure. Rye is much used. It adds 
no nitrogen, but it will grow on very poor soil, often on one 
too poor to support a legume and as it makes a good growth of 
stem it adds much humus-forming material to the soil. 

Buckwheat, in regions where it does well, is a good crop to 
subdue new land. Its roots seem to break up the soil better 
than those of most other crops. Usually the plants are 
allowed to mature and are harvested, but often they are 
plowed under as green-manure. Buckwheat is used in many 
sections as a green-manure crop in orchards. 

FARM MANURE 

29. Importance of farm manure. — The term farm manure 
is used in this book to designate the solid and hquid voidings 
of animals, together with the litter with which these voidings 
are mixed. Barnyard manure, stable manure, animal manure, 
and stall manure are other terms often used to designate this 
product. Farm manure is the most important manurial re- 
source of the farm ; it contains fertility that has been drawn 
from the soil and must be returned to it, if profitable crop pro- 
duction is to be maintained. It not only benefits the soil by 
returning nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, but it ren- 



68 Effective Farming 

ders the stored-up plant-food of the soil more readily available 
and adds humus and bacteria to the land. Beneficial effects 
of farm manure are shown in Fig. 23, which is a picture of ex- 
perimental plots at the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. 
The plot at the right had an application of two and one-half 





mm 


Mm 






^^ 


j i,n Ag 


1 


m 


^R 




™ 


^^^ 


^ 


r 


'i '" 


'^1 






^s 


g 












..^^Hi 


HH 



Fig. 23. — Beneficial effect of barnyard manure., a, no barnyard manure 
applied ; b, barnyard manure applied at the rate of 2h tons to the acre. 

tons of manure to the acre and the one at the left had no ma- 
nure. Notice the difference in the growth of the corn in the 
two plots. 

30. Kinds of farm manure. — Manure from horses, cattle, 
sheep, swine, and poultry are the chief kinds produced on the 
farm. As a rule, however, the bulk of the manure that is 
returned to the soil is from cattle and horses. This is because 
it is somewhat easier to find ways of storing these voidings 
than those of the other classes of farm animals and also be- 
cause horses and cattle consume most of the grain and rough- 
age of the average farm. 

Horse manure is uniform in character ; the dung is dry and 
contains a large proportion of crude fiber. The manure fer- 
ments easily, which means excessive loss of nitrogen. Horse 
manure also loses much fertility by reason of firefanging, a 



Soil Fertiliiy 69 

process that causes the manure to turn white whenever a pile 
is left exposed for a time. Firefanging is caused by fungi 
and the manure so affected is of little value. The liquid por- 
tion of horse manure is rich in nitrogenous compounds, but 
soon after it is voided bacteria start to work on these com- 
pounds and set ammonia, a gas, free. As ammonia contains 
nitrogen, the fermentation means a loss of this product. Much 
of the fertility of horse manure can be saved by mixing the 
manure with that of cattle in the storage place. On account 
of its dry condition horse manure is known as a hot manure. 

Cow manure is about equal in fertilizing value to horse ma- 
nure, but it contains less fiber, consequently, less humus-form- 
ing material. Owing to its large percentage of moisture, it is 
known as a cold manure. A ton of cow manure contains on 
the average about half as much dry matter as a ton of horse 
manure. It does not firefang and it decomposes slowly. 
When stored it should be protected from the weather to pre- 
vent loss of plant-food. 

Hog manure, like that of cattle, is a cold manure and de- 
composes slowly. The comparative quantity of plant-food 
it contains can be learned from Table I. 

Sheejp manure is rich in nitrogen and potassium, is dry, and 
decomposes rapidly. It is very concentrated and is often 
sold in bags like commercial fertilizer. 

Poultry manure is very concentrated and is rich in nitrogen. 
On account of being so concentrated it should be mixed with 
litter or with other kinds of manure when applied to the soil. 
It is very valuable for such crops as onions that require a large 
quantity of nitrogen. 

31. Composition and character of farm manure. — Farm 
manure is variable in composition and character, due chiefly 
to the kind and quantity of litter used, the class of animals by 
which the manure is produced, the age and the kind of work 
done by the animal, the feed of the animal, and the way in 
which the manure is handled. 



70 



Effective Farming 



Influence of litter on manure. — The kind and quantity of 
litter used has much to do with the composition of the manure. 
For example if sawdust and shavings are the bedding material, 
there is less fertility than if oat straw is used and, in addition, 
oat straw decomposes more rapidly than shavings or saw- 
dust, which is an advantage. Also, if manure contains a large 
proportion of htter, obviously it is less valuable than if it con- 
tains a smaller quantity. 

TABLE I 
The Composition of Fresh Manure 







Percentage of 




Water 


Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Potash 


f Sohd 80 per cent 
Horse \ Liquid 20 per cent 
Whole manure . 

' Sohd 70 per cent 
Cow \ Liquid 30 per cent 
Whole manure . 

Solid 67 per cent 
Sheep < Liquid 33 per cent 
[ Whole manure . 

Solid 60 per cent 
Swine < Liquid 40 per cent 
[ Whole manure . 




75 
90 

78 

85 
92 
86 

60 

85 
68 

80 

97 

87 


0.55 
1.35 
0.70 

0.40 
1.00 
0.60 

0.75 
1.35 
0.95 

0.55 
0.40 
0.50 


0.30 
Trace 
0.25 

0.20 
Trace 
0.15 

0.50 
0.05 
0.35 

0.05 
0.10 
0.35 


0.40 
1.25 
0.55 

0.10 
1.35 
0.45 

0.45 
2.10 
1.00 

0.40 
0.45 
0.40 



Van Slyke, L. L. Fertilizers and Crops. New York. 1912. 



Influence of class of animal on manure. — The composition 
of the manure from the different classes of animals is diifferent. 
Thorne has found that as an average of several analyses made 
by the experiment stations in Ohio, Connecticut, and New 
York, horse manure with straw contains .57 per cent nitrogen, 
.12 per cent phosphorus, and .54 per cent potassium, and cow 
manure with straw contains .46 per cent nitrogen, .13 per cent 



Soil Fertility 71 

phosphorus, and .36 per cent potassium. Table I shows the 
difference in the composition of manure from the several 
classes of farm animals. It must be remembered in studying 
the table that the percentages are for fresh manure and that 
too often in the ordinary handling of manure not all the fer- 
tility reaches the fields. 

Influence of age of animal on manure. — A young animal, 
since it requires large quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
potassium in the building up of muscle and bone, takes more of 
these elements from the food than does an older animal. As a 
result, manure from young animals is less valuable pound 
for pound than that from mature animals. 

Influence on manure of kind of work done by animal. — How 
the kind of work done by an animal influences the voidings can 
well be illustrated in the case of cattle. A cow giving milk 
takes out of her feed 24.5 per cent of the nitrogen it contains, 
while a fattening ox that has already built up his lean-meat 
tissues and frame requires only 3.9 per cent of the nitrogen of 
the feed. 

Influence of feed on manure. — Since an animal will retain 
in its body only a portion of the fertility elements of its feed, 
it is evident that when given a rich feed it will void a rich 
manure. When a ration rich in protein is fed, a manure rich 
in nitrogen will result. This has been proved by experiments 
at several of the experiment stations. For example, Wheeler 
found that when a nitrogenous ration was fed to hens, the 
resulting manure analyzed : nitrogen .80 per cent ; phosphorus 
.41 per cent ; potash .27 per cent ; and that when a car- 
bonaceous ration (one poor in protein) was fed, the manure 
showed : nitrogen .66 per cent ; phosphorus .32 per cent ; 
potassium .21 per cent. 

Losses in manure due to improper handling. — The method 
of handling the manure has more to do with its composition 
than any other factor. Loss can occur both by leaching and 
by fermentation. Leaching, which means the dissolving out 



72 Effective Farming 

of the readily soluble plant-foods, will always occur in the case 
of the urine and also in the case of the solid parts when the 
manure is exposed to rain or snow. This loss can be lessened 
by storing the manure in a concrete pit or a yard that has a 
water-tight bottom or by spreading the manure on the field 
where it is to be used soon after it is voided. By this latter 
method the plant-food will leach out, but it will enter the soil 
where it can be used by the plants. 

Fermentation, or the decomposing of the manure, takes place 
rapidly. The manure as it leaves the animal is teeming with 
bacteria from the digestive system and these cause it to decom- 
pose rapidly. Two classes of bacteria are at work — one known 
as aerobic, which require oxygen for their development and 
the other known as anaerobic, which work where air is either 
lacking or present only in small quantities. When manure 
is fresh it is likely to be rather loose and, if it dries, it soon be- 
comes aerated. Under such a condition the aerobic bacteria 
start to work, changes are rapid, and much heat occurs. This 
fermentation is undesirable, as it destroys the organic matter 
and liberates the nitrogen. The action of these bacteria can 
be lessened by compacting the manure and by wetting the pile 
to exclude the air. The losses from aerobic fermentation are 
greater in horse, sheep, and poultry manures — the hot ma- 
nures — than they are in cattle and swine manures. 

Anaerobic bacteria work where most of the air is excluded 
from the pile. The changes caused in the manure are unfa- 
vorable to the loss of nitrogen and the manure rots without 
much loss of plant-food. This kind of rotted manure is very 
valuable, as it contains readily available plant-food. When 
a vegetable-grower places manure and soil in layers in a pile 
and packs and wets the pile, he makes conditions favorable 
for anaerobic bacteria to work. This way of handling manure 
is known as composting it and the pile, as a compost pile. 
The manure rots, but still contains much readily available 
plant-food. 



Soil Fertility 



73 



NEW YORK EXR 

4.000 LBS. HORSE MANURE WEATHERED 6 MONTHS 
LOST 2270 LBS. IN WEIGHT 

LBS. 
] 4.000 







APRIL E5TH 


1 


TO 


LOSS IN VALUE 65% 


SEPT. 22ND 









Schutt, in a Canadian Department of Agriculture bulletin, 
has reported a very instructive experiment to show the effect of 
improper handling of 

manure. A quantity DON T EXPOSE MANURE 

of mixed horse and TO WEATHER 

cow manure was di- 
vided into two lots. 
One lot was exposed 
to the weather, the 
other was protected 
in a bin under a shed. 
The percentage of loss 
in both was deter- 
mined at the end of 
six months and also 
at the end of a year. 
The percentages of 
loss of organic matter, 
nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and potash are 
shown in Table II. The figures are indeed significant and teach 
a valuable lesson. The results of a similar experiment are 
given in Fig. 24. 

TABLE II 1 



10.000 LBS. cow MANURE WEATHERED 6 MONTHS 
LOST 4875 LBS. IN WEIGHT 



110.000 







APRIL 25TH 


1 


TO 


LOSS IN VALUE 32 5« 


SEPT. 22ND 


^^^^^^H 







LOSS FN PLANT FOOD 

NIT. PHOS. POTASM 
MORSe HANVKE 607, 477. ' 787. 
COW MANURE •401 19- SI 

CORNELL BUL 13 



DON'T EXPOSE TO WEATHER 
HAVE A MANURE PIT 
TIGHT FLOORS IN BARNS 
SPREAD WHEN FRESH 
PLENTY OF BEDDING ^ „„ 

TO ADSORB LIQUIDS 



Fig. 24. — A lantern slide that tells a story of 
waste on American farms. 



Comparison of Protected and Exposed Manure. 

OF Loss 



Percentages 





Six Months' Period 


Twelve Months' 
Period 




Exposed 
Manure 


Protected 
Manure 


Exposed 
Manure 


Protected 
Manure 


Loss of organic matter . 

Loss of nitrogen 

Loss of phosphoric acid . . . 
Loss of potash 


65 
30 
12 
29 


58 

19 



3 


69 
40 
16 
36 


60 

23 

4 

3 



1 Schutt, M. A. Barnyard Manure, Canadian Dept. of Agriculture, Central Experi- 
mental Farms. Bulletin 31. 



74 



Effective Farming 



32. Methods of handling manure. — From the foregoing 
statements it is plain that much of the value of manure can 
be lost by careless handling. In fact it has been estimated 
that about one-third of the value of the manure of the United 
States is lost annually and that this annual loss amounts to 
$708,466,000. Much of the loss can be prevented by the 
proper handling of the product. It is, of course, necessary for 
the farmer to adapt the method to his particular circumstances, 
keeping in mind the value of the manure, the ease with which 




Fig. 25. — The wrong way to store manure, piling it by the roadside. 



organic matter and plant-food are lost, the kind of farm he 
maintains, and the practicability of handling the manure in a 
particular way. Fig. 25 shows the wrong way to store manure. 
Hauling manure direct to the field. — If the farming can be 
so arranged, it is advisable to haul the manure from the stable 
daily and spread it on the field at once. Many farmers have 
adopted this method successfully. They try always to have 
some field on which the manure can be spread, and to save 
spaces near roads for muddy days. In the winter in cold cli- 
mates the manure may be spread on the snow or on the frozen 
ground without much loss of fertility. In the case of a dairy 



Soil Fertility 75 

farm, fresh manure is so very wet and heavy that it is neces- 
sary to have a tight wagon-box in which to carry it. A manure- 
spreader cannot spread the wet, heavy mass of material. A 
wagon-box hned with metal has not proved very satisfactory, 
because the acids of the manure soon corrode the metal and 
cause the box to leak. 

A home-made tank-like box, illustrated in Fig. 26, has been 
used successfully. The sides of the box are of cypress plank 
If inches thick. The middle bottom piece is a 3-inch by 8- 
inch oak plank and the piece on each side of the oak plank is 




Fig. 26. — Home-made tank wagon-box for hauling fresh manure to the fields. 

cypress, 3 inches thick, tapered to If inches to fit the side 
pieces. The ends are of 2-inch plank and rabbeted. The box 
planks are beveled together to conform to this shape and are 
plowed for a slip tongue-and-lead joint. They are also plowed 
at each end to receive the rabbet of the end pieces. When 
put together the box is drawn tight by the band-iron and clip. 
Use of a concrete pit. — Many farmers make use of a concrete 
pit as a place in which to store manure. Such a pit should 
have a concrete bottom and sides in order to prevent excessive 
leaching of the plant-food from the pile. The manure should be 
spread out over the surface of the pit and be kept moist ; this 



76 



Effective Farming 



helps to prevent the loss of nitrogen by fermentation. A roof 
and sides should be placed over the pit and the whole screened 
to keep out the flies. This latter is a sanitary measure. Flies 
breed in manure and the numbers in a season can be greatly 
reduced by keeping them away from the manure. 

Use of a covered barnyard. — The building of a roof over the 
barnyard and the storing of the manure there is an economical 
way of handling. The yard should, of course, have an imper- 
vious bottom to prevent loss from leaching. If the animals 
are allowed to exercise there, they will tramp the manure and 




Fig. 27.- 



The wrong kind of barnyard. Plant-food and humus are wasted 
in such yards as this. 



keep it moist, which is an advantage. Frear of the Pennsyl- 
vania Station found the loss in covered and trampled manure 
to be nitrogen, 5.7 per cent, phosphoric acid, 8.5 per cent, and 
potash, 5.5 per cent, and the loss in covered and untrampled 
manure to be nitrogen, 34.1 per cent, phosphoric acid, 14.2 per 
cent, and potash 19.8 per cent. The use of a covered barn- 
yard without an impervious bottom is not advised. Even if 
the bottom is hard earth, about one-third of the fertility is 
lost by leaching. In Fig. 27 is shown a common tj^pe of barn- 
yard, — a covered barnyard would be much better. 

Allowing manure to accumulate in stalls. — In some sections 
a plan in use is to allow the manure to accumulate in the stalls, 



Soil Fertility 



77 



fresh bedding being added from time to time to keep the ani- 
mals clean. Experiments show that, as far as fertility and 
labor are concerned, this is a good way to handle manure. 
There is little loss of nitrogen as long as the animals remain in 
the stalls; the wetting of the manure and the trampling it 
receives help to prevent loss. When the animals are removed 
there is considerable loss of nitrogen, because the drying out 
of the material admits air which allows bacterial action to pro- 
ceed vigorously. Consequently manure stored in this way 
should be taken to the fields as soon as the animals are removed 
from the stalls permanently. 

33. Methods of applying manure. — Some farmers, when 
applying manure to the fields, place it in small heaps to be 




Fig. 28. — A manure-spreader means a saving of labor and evenness of 
distribution of the manure. 

spread later. This is not good practice. It means loss by 
fermentation and the soluble portions will leach out and pass 
into the soil just beneath the pile. In addition there is a loss 
of labor ; the manure must be handled twice. Manure should, 
as a rule, be spread directly from the manure-spreader or 



78 Effective Farming 

wagon in an even coat over the field. In this way it is evenly 
distributed and a more uniform crop growth can be expected. 
Whenever possible a manure-spreader (Fig. 28) should be used ; 
it means a saving of labor and evenness of distribution of the 
manure. There are machines on the market that will spread 
the manure in narrow piles where the crop rows will stand. 
These are especially useful for crops like corn and vegetables. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What three plant-foods are sometimes lacking in soil? 

2. How can missing plant-food be supplied? 

3. What causes soil to wear out? 

4. Why should rotation of crops be practiced ? 

5. What is meant by a green-manure crop ? 

6. Which legume in your region is most used for green-manure? 

7. State the benefits of farm manure to the soil. 

8. Why is manure from a young animal less valuable than that 
from an old animal? 

9. What are the advantages of hauling manure direct to the field 
soon after it is voided ? 

10. What are the advantages of a concrete pit as a storage place 
for manure? 

EXERCISES 

1. Crop rotation. — Write to your experiment station for inform£i- 
tion concerning the best rotations for the chief crops in your section. 
On a plot on the school farm or on the farm of a neighbor follow one of 
these rotations. On a similar plot follow a one-crop system. Com- 
pare results. 

2. Green-manure. — Visit a farm where a green crop has been 
plowed under. Observe the organic matter in the soil. Watch the 
crops that grow on this piece and compare them with crops on similar 
soil where green-manuring is not practiced. 

3. Farm manure. — Ask some live-stock farmer of your commu- 
nity the average amount of manure made on his farm annually. Refer- 
ring to Table II and considering nitrogen worth twenty cents a pound, 
and phosphoric acid, and potash each six cents (normal prices), find 
the money loss if manure is exposed for a year. 

REFERENCES 

Same as preceding chapter. 



CHAPTER V 

SOIL FERTILITY, Continued 

Commercial Fertilizers 

Use and misuse of fertilizers. 
Nitrogenous fertilizers. 

Nitrate of soda. 

Sulfate of ammonia. 

Dried blood. 

Tankage. 

Fish-scrap. 

Hoof-and-horn meals. 

Cottonseed meal. 

Linseed meal. 

Fertilizers from the atmosphere. 
Phosphatic fertilizers. 

Bone-meals. 

Phosphate rocks. 

Phosphates from iron furnaces. 
Potassic fertilizers. 

Salts from German mines. 

Wood-ashes. 

American potash. 
Effects of the different plant-foods on vegetation. 

Effects of nitrogen. 

Effects of phosphorus. 

Effects of potassium. 
Purchasing of fertilizers. 
Fertilizer laws. 
Fertilizer equivalents. 
Home-mixed fertilizers. 

Method of mixing the ingredients. 

Determining the quantities of ingredients required. 
79 



80 Effective Farming 

Lime for Soil Improvement 
Uses of lime. 

Correcting soil acidity. 

Rendering plant-food available. 

Improving the physical condition of soil. 

Lime as an aid for legumes. 

Supplying calcium by lime. 
Forms of lime. 
Quantity of lime to apply. 

In the preceding chapter we have studied the effect on the 
soil of stable manures and green-crops. In this chapter we 
are to consider the fertilizing materials purchased in the mar- 
ket as commercial manufactured commodities. It is not pos- 
sible always to obtain sufficient home manures, and often the 
more concentrated materials of the market are specially needed. 
Lands that have been long farmed are likely to profit much 
by the application of commercial fertilizers. Some kinds of 
crops also make special response to them. The intensive vege- 
table-grower would hardly know how to farm without such 
materials ; he must grow many of his crops quickly if they are 
to be of good quality and be ready for an early market; the 
readily available fertilizer aids him to secure these results. 
The grain-farmer, on the other hand, has a longer season in 
which to grow the crop, and the product may be held for the 
market ; he may therefore use less fertilizer and let the plants 
get the additional support from supplies already in the soil. 
When very heavy yields are desired, market fertilizers may be 
needed. Modern farming cannot be understood without a 
clear understanding of the function and use of commercial 
fertilizers. The use of lime for soil improvement is also 
treated in this chapter. Lime is very important for this pur- 
pose and in many sections more of it should be applied to the 
soil. 

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 

34. Use and misuse of fertilizers. — The materials contain- 
ing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium that are used as 



Soil Fertility 



81 



commercial fertilizers are derived from mines, from by-products 
of manufacture, from meat-packing houses, and from the arti- 
ficial fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. A large quantity is 
used annually. The census reports show that in 1909 approxi- 
mately $112,000,000 was spent by the farmers of the United 
States for commercial fertilizers and this expenditure is increas- 
ing rapidly. For example, in 1889, the sum of $28,000,000 
was spent and $55,000,000 in 1899. In 1909, about half of 
the commercial fertilizer purchased was used in the South 




No fertilizer. Complete fertilizer. 

Fig. 29. — Effect of commercial fertilizer at Rhode Island Experiment Station. 

Atlantic States ; about half of the remainder was sold in the 
Middle Atlantic and the New England States and only about 
5 per cent was used by farmers west of the Mississippi. The 
western lands, since they have been farmed a comparatively 
short time, require less fertilizer than those in the East and 
South. Effects of commercial fertihzer in crop growth are 
shown in Fig. 29. Several miscellaneous crops were planted 
on two plots, one with no fertilizer and one with complete 
fertihzer. Notice the difference in plant growth. 

Although commercial fertilizer has an important use in the 
agriculture of this country, it is possible to misuse it. It is 
rather expensive, except for certain special crops, and usually 
does not add humus to the soil. The use of fertihzer alone 



82 Effective Farming 

will not maintain the productivity of the soil; some method 
must be followed of supplying organic matter together with 
the fertilizer. Barnyard manure and green-manure are excel- 
lent for this purpose. The fertilizer is easy to haul from the 
station and the labor of applying it is small. 

35. Nitrogenous fertilizers. — Nitrogen is the most ex- 
pensive plant-food to purchase. In normal times it costs 
about twenty cents a pound. During war times it, in common 
with other fertilizer elements, increased much in price. It is 
supplied from mineral, animal, and vegetable sources and also 
bj^ the artificial fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. 

Nitrate of soda. — The principal mineral used to supply 
nitrogen is a salt known as nitrate of soda, which is obtained 
in a crude state in the northern part of Chile. It is purified 
and when put on the market is about 96 to 97 per cent pure 
and contains from 15 to 16 per cent nitrogen. It is readily 
soluble and, for this reason, the nitrogen is quickly available 
as plant-food. Because of the solubility of the salt, the nitro- 
gen is easily lost in drainage water; therefore, the fertilizer 
should usually be applied to the growing crop rather than to 
the soil before the crop is planted. Small and frequent appli- 
cations are preferable. For example, three applications of 
fifty pounds to the acre, say a week apart, is better practice 
than one of one hundred fifty pounds. Nitrate of soda is 
used to force the growth of crops, especially vegetables, and 
is used to some extent in mixed fertilizers. A fight apphcation 
spread on a hay field when the plants are making their first 
growth in the spring has been found profitable in some instances. 

Sulfate of ammonia. — Another mineral substance contain- 
ing available nitrogen is sulfate of ammonia. It is a by-prod- 
uct of the manufacture of coal gas, is about 95 per cent pure, 
and contains about 20 per cent nitrogen. As it contains a 
larger percentage of nitrogen, it is somewhat more economical 
to handle than nitrate of soda. It does not, however, become 
available so quickly, but it is less readily lost by percolation 



Soil Fertility 83 

to lower levels in drainage water. When used in large quan- 
tities for several seasons, it has a tendency to make the soil 
acid ; consequently it should not be used on soils that are 
already acid. Like nitrate of soda, it should usually be ap- 
plied to. the growing crop rather than to the soil before it is 
plowed. 

Dried blood. — An important fertilizer of animal origin is 
dried blood, a by-product of meat-packing houses. There 
are two grades on the market ; one is bright red in color and 
contains about 13 to 15 per cent of nitrogen, the other is almost 
black and contains about 6 to 12 per cent. Dried blood decays 
rapidly in the soil and the nitrogen becomes available by the 
process of nitrification. It should not be distributed directly 
with the seeds, as it has a tendency to rot them, but should 
be drilled into the soil before the seeds are sown. 

Tankage. — The fertilizer known as tankage is, like dried 
blood, obtained from the meat-packing houses, and is made up of 
animal refuse that has no other use. Two grades are offered 
for sale, the concentrated, which contains about 10 to 12 per 
cent of nitrogen, and the crushed, which contains from 4 to 9 
per cent. Tankage is somewhat slower-acting than dried 
blood and has a tendency to rot the seeds if applied with them. 

Fish-scrap. — The refuse from fish canneries is sold for 
fertilizer. Although it is somewhat variable in quahty, it 
usually contains about 8 per cent of nitrogen. It also con- 
tains about 6 per cent of phosphorus. 

Hoof-and-horn meals. — The refuse meals from factories 
manufacturing combs and buttons from hoofs and horns are 
used to some extent as fertilizer. They contain about 12 per 
cent of nitrogen, but they have the disadvantage of decom- 
posing very slowly in the soil. For this reason they are not 
good for immediate crops ; they serve only to build up the 
nitrogen-content of a depleted soil. 

Cottonseed meal. — Cottonseed meal is a vegetable product 
sometimes used as fertilizer, especially in the South. It con- 



84 Effective Farming 

tains about 6.5 to 7 per cent nitrogen, 2.8 per cent phosphoric 
acid, and 1.8 per cent potash. Because of its value as a stock 
feed and its high price, it is better practice usually to feed 
the meal to live-stock and apply the resulting manure to the 
soil than to use the meal as a direct fertihzer. 

Linseed meal. — A product of flaxseed, linseed meal, con- 
tains about 5 per cent nitrogen, but like cottonseed meal, it is 
so high in price and so valuable as stock feed that it is not 
often used as fertilizer. 

Fertilizers from the atmosphere. — The artificial fixation of 
atmospheric nitrogen has been accomplished with some suc- 
cess. A product known by the trade name cyanamid is 
now on the market. It contains about 16 per cent nitrogen. 
The nitrogen is not readily available, but becomes so in the 
soil. By many it has been used with good results. In Nor- 
way a product known as calcium nitrate is made by fixing 
atmospheric nitrogen ; but its manufacture is not conducted 
extensively on a commercial scale in the United States. The 
product contains nitrogen in an available form for plants. 
The electric arc is used in converting the nitrogen into the 
calcium nitrate. 

36. Phosphatic fertilizers. — In normal times available phos- 
phorus in commercial fertilizer costs from four to five cents a 
pound. The chief sources are animal bones, natural deposits 
of phosphate rock, and by-products from the manufacture of 
steel from phosphatic iron ore. 

Bone-meals. — The animal bone-phosphates are raw bone- 
meal and steamed bone-meal. Raw bone-meal consists of 
untreated bones ground to a powder. Steamed bone-meal 
is made of bones after the fat has been removed by steam. 
The steaming makes it possible to grind the bones finer and 
the absence of fat causes the material to decay rapidly, both 
of which are advantages. Raw bone-meal contains about 9 
per cent phosphorus and 4 per cent nitrogen. Steamed bone- 
meal contains from 12 to 14 per cent phosphorus and from 1 



Soil Fertility 85 

to 2 per cent nitrogen. The phosphorus in these meals, which 
is in the form of a compound known as tricalcium phosphate, 
is not soluble in water. However, it becomes slowly soluble 
in the soil ; consequently the meals should be used for building 
up a soil rather than for immediate crops. 

When bone is treated with sulfuric acid, a chemical change 
occurs and a part of the tricalcium phosphate is converted 
into monocalcium phosphate, a soluble form; a part reacts 
with the sulfuric acid and forms dicalcium phosphate, which is 
soluble in weak acids, but not in water ; the remainder is 
unchanged. Therefore, the material after treatment contains 
some of all three phosphates. This fertilizer is known as acid- 
ulated bone-meal, dissolved bone, or superphosphate. It 
contains on the average about 12 per cent available phosphoric 
acid and 3 to 4 per cent insoluble phosphoric acid. Available 
phosphoric acid is considered as including both water-soluble 
and citric-acid soluble, for it has been found that phosphate 
soluble in a weak solution of citric acid becomes available for 
plants relatively soon. In addition to the phosphoric acid, 
the acidulated meal contains about 2 per cent nitrogen. 

Phosphate rocks. — The natural deposits of phosphate rocks, 
or mineral phosphates, are widely distributed. The most 
important ones in the United States are in Florida, South 
Carolina, and Tennessee. This rock contains from 8 to 15 
per cent phosphorus. One method of preparing the rock is 
to grind it very fine, in which form it is known as floats, or 
raw rock-phosphate. The phosphorus in the rock is the tri- 
calcium form and is not readily available, but becomes so 
slowly in the soil. The fertilizer is useful, therefore, in build- 
ing up soil deficient in phosphorus. When mineral phosphates 
are treated with sulfuric acid, monocalcium and dicalcium phos- 
phates are formed, as in the case of treated bone. The treated 
product is called acid-phosphate and is the kind of phosphatic 
fertilizer most widely used. It contains from 14 to 16 per 
cent available phosphoric acid. 



86 Effective Farming 

Phosphates from iron furnaces. — In the manufacture of 
steel from phosphatic iron ore, a slag results as a by-product 
which contains phosphorus. This material when ground 
makes a valuable fertilizer. It is called basic slag, also Thomas 
slag. It contains about 8 per cent phosphorus in the tetra- 
calcium form, which is more readily available than the tri- 
calcium form in untreated bone or raw rock, and the fertilizer, 
for this reason, is usually applied to the soil as powder without 
treatment with sulfuric acid. The slag contains lime also which 
is of value, especially if applied to acid soils. (See paragraph 
43.) 

37. Potassic fertilizers. — The chief potassic fertilizers are 
salts taken from mines in Germany, wood-ashes, and certain 
American products. The potash mines in Germany are located 
at Stassfurt and the industry is an extensive one. During the 
war with Germany these fertilizers are not available and a 
relatively small quantity of potash can be procured. 

Salts from German mines. — The chief fertilizers from the 
mines in Germany are a crude salt known as kainit and two 
refined salts, muriate of potash and sulfate of potash. Kainit 
is about 12 per cent potash ; both of the refined salts contain 
about 50 per cent potash. All of these fertilizers are soluble 
in water and are used without treatment. 

Wood-ashes. — If they can be secured unleached, wood-ashes 
are valuable for the potash and phosphorus they contain. 
Formerly they were more plentiful than at present. Unleached 
ashes contain about 5 per cent of potassium and 5 per cent of 
phosphorus. 

American potash. — With no potash available from Germany, 
it became necessary to develop the potash resources of this 
country. As a result of investigations by the Government and 
the fertilizer companies, several sources have been developed 
and much of the product placed on the market. Among the 
materials used are ground kelp, charred kelp. Great Salt Lake 
potash, and Searles Lake potash, which furnish the plant-food 



Soil Fertility 87 

in the muriate form ; alimite, which furnishes it in the sulfate 
form ; and Nebraska potash, beet-root molasses potash, manure 
ash, cement dust, and blast furnace dust, which contain the 
potash as a mixture of carbonate and sulfate. Most of the 
product is in an available form and in the various materials 
ranges from about 6 to 45 per cent pure. 

38. Effects of the different plant-foods on vegetation. — 
The effects of foods on the resulting vegetation has been ex- 
haustively studied by scientists and some very significant 
facts have been established. Some of the most important of 
these are given in the ensuing paragraphs. 

Ejfeds of nitrogen. — Vegetative growth of that part of the 
plant above ground is encouraged by nitrogen. It also imparts 
a deep green to the leaves. Absence of this color often indi- 
cates a lack of nitrogen. In the cereals nitrogen has the tendency 
to increase the plumpness of grains. With all plants nitrogen 
is a regulator that governs to a certain extent the utilization 
of phosphorus and potassium. It also produces succulence 
in crops. This is especially desired in many vegetables, and, 
therefore, growers supply the soil plentifully with nitrogen, 
especially for such crops as lettuce, radishes, and cabbage. 
In the case of many general farm crops, however, an excessive 
use should be discouraged. In this connection it must be 
remembered that nitrogen is the most expensive plant-food 
and that, unless the crop actually requires it, an excess is an 
extravagance. Moreover, too much nitrogen has some unfavor- 
able effects on crops. It delays maturity by encouraging 
growth; it weakens the stalks of cereals and hay crops and 
causes the plants to lodge, or bend over; it may lower the 
quality of certain grains and fruits, as is the case with barley 
and peaches ; and it may decrease the resistance of plants to 
disease. However, nitrogen should be used when needed. 

Effects of phosphorus. — Phosphorus hastens the maturity 
of plants, increases root development, decreases the ratio of 
straw to grain by hastening the filling out of the latter and pro- 



88 Effective Farming 

moting maturity of the plant, strengthens the straw, thereby 
decreasing the tendency to lodge, improves the quality of the 
seeds and fruit, and increases the resistance to disease. An 
excess does not seem to have any bad effect on the crop. Phos- 
phorus should be plentifully supplied and should balance the 
nitrogen supply. As the lack of it is not readily observed, as 
in the case with nitrogen, its absence from soils is not often 
known to the farmer. The experiment stations, especially 
those that have made chemical analyses of the soil types in 
their states, usually give reliable information about the need 
of phosphorus in soils of any community. 

Effects of potassium. — It has been found that a sufficient 
supply of potassium gives plump, heavy kernels and imparts 
vigor to the plants ; also, it delays maturity and increases the 
resistance of the plants to disease. In general it seems to have 
a balancing effect on nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive 
quantities in soil have no bad effects. Experiment stations 
can give information as to whether it is likely to be lacking in 
any particular soil type of the state. 

39. Purchasing of fertilizers. — Commercial fertilizers can 
be purchased either mixed or unmixed. The mixed goods are 
put together at factories and are given a name, or brand. These 
brands usually contain two of the fertilizer elements and often 
three. The fertilizers are made up of the ingredients previously 
described, the quantity of each ingredient used being deter- 
mined by the percentage of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas- 
sium desired in the fertilizer. The trade in mixed fertilizers 
amounts to millions of dollars annually. Although farmers 
can procure the in'gredients and mix their own fertilizer, usually 
for less money, the ease with which mixed goods are secured 
and the attitude of fertilizer dealers against this home-mixing 
will cause the mixed product to be most widely used. 

40. Fertilizer laws. — Laws for controlling the sale of fer- 
tilizers are in force in most states. The need of these laws is 
obvious, when one considers the many opportunities for fraud 



Soil Fertility 89 

as to the availability of the materials used and the percentages 
of plant-foods contained. The laws of the several states differ 
in some respects, but in general the manufacturers are required 
to pay a state tax for each brand and to print on the bags con- 
taining the mixture (1) the quantity of fertilizer in the bags, 
(2) the name, brand, or trade mark, (3) the name and address 
of the manufacturer, (4) the guaranteed chemical composition 
of the fertilizer. 

The quantities of plant-food ingredients in a fertilizer are 
expressed in percentages and are figured on a ton basis of 
2000 pounds. Thus if a fertilizer is said to contain 3 per 
cent of nitrogen, 6 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 10 per cent 
of potash, the quantities in pounds of the ingredients are : 

Nitrogen 2000 (ton basis) X .03 = 60 

Phosphoric acid 2000 (ton basis) X .06 = 120 

Potash 2000 (ton basis) X .10 = 200 

The composition of fertilizers is often designated by giving 
the percentages only, the names of the ingredients being omitted. 
Thus the fertilizer just considered is usually spoken of as a 
3-6-10 fertilizer. As a rule the percentage of nitrogen is given 
first, that of the phosphoric acid second, and that of potash 
last, but in some parts of the country the order of the first 
two is reversed, making the above a 6-3-10 fertilizer. 

Laws in the different states vary as to what shall be guar- 
anteed by an analysis. Some states require a statement as 
to the percentage of both nitrogen and ammonia, others require 
that the percentage of nitrogen only shall be given. Some 
require the percentage of the soluble, reverted, and total phos- 
phoric acid ; others only that of the soluble and the reverted. 
In the case of potash some states require only the percentage 
of soluble ; others, that the total be given. The best kind of 
a guarantee is one that gives not only the percentage of the 
ingredients, but also their availability. Some states have 
this requirement. Formerly it was the custom among ferti- 



90 



Effective Farming 



lizer manufacturers to complicate the statements of the analyses 
more than at present. Such complicated statements are very 
misleading and confusing. 

Most states provide for the analysis of the different brands 
licensed for sale in the state. Officers collect samples from 
stock in the hands of the dealers and farmers and if these samples 
are found on analysis to contain less than the percentages 
of the plant-foods guaranteed, the manufacturers are subject 
to arrest. Also, the results are published, which not only 
helps to prevent fraud, but protects the honest manufacturer, 

41. Fertilizer equivalents. — In interpreting the analysis 
of fertihzers. Table III will be helpful. 

TABLE III 
Fertilizer Equivalents 



To Convert Guar- 


Into Terms of 


Multiply by 


antee OF 






Ammonia 


Nitrogen 


.823 


Nitrogen 


Ammonia 


1.215 


Nitrate of soda 


Nitrogen 


.165 


Nitrogen 


Nitrate of soda 


6.064 


Phosphoric acid 


Phosphorus 


.436 


Phosphorus 


Phosphoric acid 


2.290 


Phosphoric acid 


Bone phosphate 


2.183 


Bone phosphate 


Phosphoric acid 


.458 


Potash 


Potassium 


.83 


Potassium 


Potash 


1.024 


Sulfate of potash 


Potash 


.541 


Potash 


Sulfate of potash 


1.850 


Muriate of potash 


Potash 


.632 


Potash 


Muriate of potash 


1.583 



42. Home-mixed fertilizers. — In many cases, farmers buy 
the separate ingredients and mix their fertilizers at home. 
This practice is discouraged by the manufacturers who assert 
that factory-made goods are more finely ground than home- 



Soil Fertility 91 

mixed and, for this reason, are more uniform and in a better 
physical condition. The argument is fairly sound ; neverthe- 
less, experience shows that good results have been obtained 
from home-mixed goods. By screening and mixing the mate- 
rials thoroughly, a well-mixed fertilizer of good physical condi- 
tion can be made at home. Experiments have shown that, as 
a rule, home-mixing is cheaper than buying factory-mixed 
goods, provided the ingredients can be purchased in large 
enough quantities to warrant car-load shipments. The freight 
rates are so high on small-lot shipments that the home-mixing 
of small quantities usually does not pay. Cooperation among 
farmers is here an advantage ; the organizations can buy in 
large lots and distribute small quantities to the individual 
members, thus taking advantage of wholesale prices and large 
freight shipments. When deciding whether it will pay to 
mix fertilizers at home, the farmer or organization should secure 
quotations from dealers for both mixed goods of a given analysis 
and the ingredients that will make this fertilizer and compare 
prices. Usually it is well to figure a dollar a ton as the cost of 
home-mixing, although quantities have been mixed for fifty 
cents a ton. 

Method of mixing the ingredients. — The operation of mixing 
is not difficult. A smooth solid floor, shovels, a broom, a sand- 
screeiji, and a stamper or a maul to crush out any lumps that 
may be present are all the tools needed. A convenient stamper 
can be made by fitting a handle into the top of a wooden block 
about six inches by six inches by eighteen inches. Any lumpy 
materials should be crushed and the different ingredients 
should be placed in layers in a long pile. The pile is usually 
mixed by two shovelers working opposite each other who start 
at one end and turn the mass, a shovelful at a time, until the 
other end has been reached. To insure good mixing, the pile 
should be turned over at least three times. After each mixing, 
the scattered parts at the edges should be swept into the pile 
and, as soon as the mass has been well mixed, it should be 



92 Effective Farming 

shoveled through the sand-screen and any lumps that will 
not pass through the wire mesh should be broken and mixed 
with the pile. The mixed fertilizer should be placed in bags 
to facilitate storing and hauling to the fields. 

Determining the quantities of ingredients required. — The 
determination of the quantities of different ingredients neces- 
sary to make fertilizer of a given analysis is by simple arith- 
metic. Suppose, for example, it is desired to mix a 2-8-10 
fertilizer, the nitrogen to come half from nitrate of soda and 
half from dried blood, the phosphoric acid from acid-phosphate, 
and the potash from sulfate of potash. Also, suppose the 
nitrate of soda contains 15 per cent nitrogen, the dried blood 
6 per cent, the acid-phosphate 16 per cent phosphoric acid, 
the sulfate of potash 50 per cent potash. To find the number 
of pounds proceed as in paragraph 40. 

2000 lb. (one ton) X .02= 40 lb. nitrogen 

2000 lb. (one ton) X .08=160 lb. phosphoric acid 

2000 lb. (one ton) X .10 = 200 lb. potash 

The nitrate of soda being 15 per cent nitrogen contains 15 
pounds of nitrogen to the 100 pounds of nitrate of soda ; there- 
fore to have 20 pounds of nitrogen (half the quantity required), 
it will require as many hundredweight of nitrate of soda as 
20 is times 15, or 20 divided by 15, which is 1^. This equals 
133^ pounds, which for practical purposes may be taken as 
134 pounds. As the dried blood is 6 per cent nitrogen it will 
contain 6 pounds to the 100 ; therefore, to have 20 pounds of 
nitrogen, it will require as many hundredweight of dried blood 
as 20 is times 6, or 20 divided by 6, or 3^, which equals 333^ 
pounds, or approximately 334 pounds. The acid-phosphate, 
as it is 16 per cent phosphoric acid, contains 16 pounds of phos- 
phoric acid to the 100 ; consequently to get 160 pounds of 
phosphoric acid requires as many hundredweight as 160 is 
times 16, or 10, which equals 1000 pounds of phosphoric acid. 
The sulfate of potash, as it is 50 per cent potash, contains 50 



Soil Fertility 93 

pounds of potash to the 100; thus to get 200 pounds will 
require double the quantity, or 400 pounds of sulfate of potash. 
The pounds of the ingredients are as follows : 



Nitrate of soda (15%) . . . . 

Dried blood (6%) 

Acid-phosphate (16%) . . . 
Sulfateof potash (50%) . . . 


. . . 134 1b 
. . . 334 1b 
. . . 1000 1b 
. . . 400 1b 


Total 


. . . 18681b 



This is 132 pounds short of a ton. Any material such as 
sand or ashes may be used as filler to make up the ton weight. 
The same quantity of plant-food will, however, be placed on 
the soil if only the 1868 pounds of material are used. 

LIME FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

43. Uses of lime. — Lime is a soil amendment and is useful 
in many ways. It corrects the acidity of soils, is of aid in 
rendering plant-food available, improves the physical condi- 
tions of the soil, often makes it possible to grow some varieties 
of legumes where they would not otherwise grow, and supphes 
the plant-food element, calcium. 

Correcting soil acidity. — The principal reason for using lime 
is to correct the acidity, or sourness, of the soil. Lime is a 
base and like all bases reacts chemically with acids to form 
neutral salts. Any acid soil shows the good effects of appli- 
cations of lime. 

The usual test for soil acidity is made by means of blue lit- 
mus paper, a preparation that can be purchased in strips ready 
for use at drug stores. Blue litmus turns red when exposed 
to an acid ; consequently when placed in an acid soil the paper 
becomes red. In making the test, a time should be chosen 
when the soil is moist enough to work into a compact ball. 
This does not mean that the soil should be wet enough to be 
muddy. Make four balls of earth, break each of them into 
two pieces, lay a piece of blue litmus paper on the broken 



94 Effective Farming 

surface of a part of each one, and replace the parts of the ball. 
Leave the paper in contact with the soil in the first ball for 
five minutes, the second for ten minutes, the third for thirty 
minutes, and the fourth for an hour. If the papers on 
examination have turned red, the soil is acid and in need of 
lime. Differences in the color of the papers will give an idea 
of the extent of the acidity of the soil. 

Rendering plant-food available. — Compounds of phosphorus 
in the soil are rendered available as plant-food by the action 
of lime. When soluble salts of phosphorus are applied to the 
soil, they react chemically and form either dicalcium phosphate 
or some such compound as phosphate of iron or phosphate of 
aluminum. In the soils in which lime is plentiful, the first- 
named compound is formed, and in soils lacking lime the other 
compounds result. The dicalcium phosphate is more readily 
soluble in the soil- water than the others ; consequently in a 
soil not in need of lime, the phosphorus is more readily avail- 
able than in one deficient in lime. 

Lime has a somewhat similar action on potash ; certain 
reactions take place in soils in which lime is abundant and set 
potassium free from compounds that remain unavailable as 
plant-food in a soil deficient in lime. 

Nitrification is not active in sour soils, but it is so in neutral 
soils. Thus when the acidity is reduced by an application of 
lime, nitrification can take place, which means more available 
nitrogen in the soil. 

Improving the physical condition of soil. - — Clay soils espe- 
cially are improved. They become more crumbly and can be 
made into good tilth more readily. Such soils often are hard 
and full of cracks, causing loss of moisture, but when they are 
plentifully supplied with lime, these conditions are not so likely 
to arise. 

■Lime as an aid for legumes. — Alfalfa and red clover do not 
make a good growth on sour soils. In fact it is usually impos- 
sible to secure a stand if the soil is very acid. Many soils that 



Soil Fertility 95 

formerly grew good crops of red clover are now not producing 
this valuable legume and very often an application of lime is 
all that is required to renew this stand. Often failures in grow- 
ing alfalfa are due to the soils not being sufficiently limed. 
Field peas, cowpeas, soybeans, vetches, white clover, alsike 
clover, and bur clover will grow on soils low or even slightly 
deficient in lime ; nevertheless they will respond favorably 
to an application of lime and make better growths. Florida 
beggarweed and velvet beans seem to prefer an acid soil and 
lime is not required on soils to be planted to these crops. 

Supplying calcium by lime. — Calcium as a plant-food is 
found in sufficient quantities in most soils. However, analyses 
'have been made of some soils in the Eastern and Southern 
States that show a deficiency of it. In soils of this kind, the 
marked response on an application of lime may be due partly 
to the favorable effect of the added supply of the plant-food. 

44. Forms of lime. — Three forms of lime are in use by 
farmers for soil improvement. They are ground limestone, 
caustic lime, and hydrated lime. Limestone (CaCOs), or car- 
bonate of lime, is found as natural deposits in many parts 
of the country. For soil improvement it is ground to a powder 
and applied to the land without further treatment. Marl, 
chalk, and oyster shells contain carbonate of lime and can, if 
ground, be used as ground limestone. Caustic lime (CaO), 
also known as burnt lime and as quick-lime, is made by heating 
limestone until carbon dioxide (CO2) is given off. It is called 
caustic lime because it decomposes organic substances. Thus 
it burns humus out of the soil. When moistened it unites 
with water and forms hydrated lime (Ca(0H)2). Either caus- 
tic lime or hydrated lime when placed in soil soon reverts 
to the carbonate form. When one hundred pounds of pure 
limestone is burned, fifty-six pounds of quick-lime is formed 
and the fifty-six pounds of quick-lime when treated with water 
will make seventy-four pounds of hydrated lime. Thus, as 
far as correcting soil acidity is concerned, one hundred pounds 



96 Effective Farming 

of ground limestone, fifty-six pounds of quick-lime, and seventy- 
four pounds of hydrated lime have the same value. 

When choosing lime for use on soil, the farmer must keep in 
mind the fact that caustic lime burns out the soil humus. To 
keep up the supply of humus in soil is one of the most impor- 
tant factors in maintaining soil fertility and, except in the case 
of muck or peat soils, farmers cannot often afford to lose this 
valuable product. The results of long-continued field tests 
at several experiment stations show that ground limestone 
gives the best results. At the Pennsylvania Station, when 
caustic lime was used, less yields were secured and larger quan- 
tities of organic matter were destroyed than when ground 
limestone was used. And a very significant fact about the' 
results at this station is that for every ton of caustic lime ap- 
plied to the soil, the equivalent of four and one-half tons of farm 
manure was destroyed. The nitrogen in the manure would 
cost about $7.00 if purchased in commercial fertilizer. It 
should be stated in this connection that authorities do not 
agree about the relative values of these two kinds of lime. 
Some advocate the use of caustic lime, stating that it is quicker- 
acting, which is the case, and, further, since about half the 
quantity is required, the saving in freight rates of such a bulky 
product is a factor to be considered. It must be remembered, 
however, that about $7.00 of nitrogen is destroyed for each ton of 
caustic lime used and that this money will pay many freight bills. 

Whether to use hydrated lime or some other form will de- 
pend largely on the price of the product and the amount of 
money that can be saved in freight charges. Less hydrated 
lime is used for soil improvement than the other forms. 

45. Quantity of lime to apply. — The usual first applica- 
tion of ground limestone is four tons an acre followed by two 
tons every four years. In very sour soils these amounts may 
well be increased. There is no danger of applying too large a 
quantity. Caustic lime is usually applied at the rate of 1000 
pounds to the acre and hydrated at the rate of 1500 pounds. 



Soil Fertility 97 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why should green-manure or farm manure or both be used with 
commercial fertilizer? 

2. How many pounds of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are 
present in a 3-6-4 fertilizer? How many pounds of ammonia, phos- 
phorus, and potassium? 

3. State the five benefits of lime for soil improvement. 

4. What are the advantages in using ground limestone in place of 
caustic lime? 

5. How can a soil be tested to learn whether or not it requires lime ? 

6. Why should soil to be planted to alfalfa or red clover be well 
limed? 

7. For what kind of crops is commercial fertilizer especially use- 
ful? 

8. What is the appearance of growing plants that are in need of 
nitrogen? 

9. Why should dried blood and tankage be mixed with the soil 
in the furrow before the seeds are planted? 

10. When should raw rock-phosphate be used in preference to 
treated phosphates? 

EXERCISES 

1. Fertilizer laws. — Write to your experiment station for copies 
of the fertilizer laws of your state. Study these carefully. 

2. Home-mixing of fertilizer. — Find the quantities of material 
required to mix a 2-8-6 fertilizer from 15 per cent nitrate of soda, 14 
per cent acid-phosphate, and 50 per cent sulfate of potash. Make up 
other similar problems. Get a fertilizer formula from a bag of mixed 
fertilizer and plan how you could mix one having the same formula. 

3. Testing soils for acidity. — Following directions given in the 
chapter, test the soil in several fields near the school-house for acidity. 



REFERENCES 

Same as Chapter III. 



CHAPTER VI 

INDIAN CORN, OR MAIZE 

Corn-producing localities. 
Types of corn. 

Dent, flint, pop, sweet, soft, pod. 
Uses of corn. 

Selection of variety of corn for planting. 
Selection and care of seed corn. 

Selecting ears from the field. 

Kind of stalk from which to select ears. 

Kind of seed ear to select. 

Caring for the seed ears. 
Testing seed corn for germination. 

Sawdust-box tester. 

Rag-doll tester. 
Soils and climate for corn. 
Enriching soils for corn. 
Preparation of land for corn. 
Planting the seed. 

Depth of planting. 

Methods of planting. 

Rate of planting. 

Implements for planting. 

Testing the planter. 
Cultivating the fields. 
Harvesting the crop. 
Pests of corn. 

Corn root-worms. 

Corn root-louse. 

Wire-worm. 

Cutworms. 

White-grub. 

Corn ear- worm. 

Grain- weevil. 

Migratory insects — chinch-bug, army-worm. 

Corn-smut. 

Ear-rots. 



Indian Corn, or Maize 99 

When Columbus discovered America he found Indian corn 
growing here. This corn was not known to European peoples 
before that time. The corn mentioned in the Bible was wheat 
or some of the other small grains. Indian corn has proved to 
be a very valuable accession to the crops of the world. The 
United States is the greatest producer. The yield in this 
country in 1917, a record year, was 3,191,000,000 bushels, 
which was about half the yield of all the grains we grew. In 
other words, the United States grew that year about 6,000,- 
000,000 bushels of grain, half of which was corn. 

The corn plant produces abundant feed for live-stock and a 
very large quantity of human food in the form of hominy, corn- 
meal, corn-sirup, and other products. It is the principal 
crop for filling silos in the regions of winter dairying. In some 
parts of the country much corn is eaten as human food. The 
South has always been a large consumer of corn in this way. 
Hominy will be found on the breakfast tables of most of the 
families every morning, and corn-bread in some form is a steady 
article of diet. The consumption of corn products by hu- 
man beings is extending because of the Great War. Maize 
is extensively grown in the eastern half of the United States. 
The region extending from Nebraska to Ohio is specially ad- 
vantageous for the crop, and it is known as the corn-belt. 
Maize may be considered to be the characteristic North Ameri- 
can crop. 

46. Corn-producing localities. — Indian corn is one of the 
most important of all crops. The world produces annually 
from 3 1 to 4 billion bushels. Of this vast quantity North 
America grows about 78 per cent, Europe 15 per cent. South 
America 4 per cent, Africa 2 per cent, and Australia less than 
1 per cent. The United States produces about 73 per cent 
of the corn of the world, Austria-Hungary 5^ per cent, Mexico 
and Argentina each about 4 per cent, Italy about 2^ per cent, 
Rumania about 2 per cent, and Egypt and European Russia 
each about 1§ per cent. In the United States about three- 



100 



Effective Farming 



fifths of the total corn crop is grown in the seven so-called corn- 
belt states : Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, In- 
diana, and Ohio. Many of the best yields of corn, however, 
are secured in Eastern and Southern States and it is interesting 
to note that a number of record yields have been made by mem- 
bers of Boys' Corn Clubs. Corn has a wide 
range of growth and varieties are found for 
each state. 

47. Types of corn. — Six types, or classes, of 
corn are grown. These are dent, flint, pop, 
sweet, pod, and soft corn. The last two, how- 
ever, are of little importance commercially. 

Dent corn. — The type of corn known as 
dent is the field corn commonly grown in the 
United States. In a kernel of corn, there 
are two kinds of endosperm, hard, or horny, 
and soft, or white. In dent corn the hard 
endosperm is arranged along the sides, and 
the soft endosperm surrounds the germ and 
extends to the crown, or upper portion, of the 
kernel. The soft endosperm contains a larger 
proportion of water, which causes it to shrink 
more rapidly and when the kernel matures a 
dent is formed in the crown. In Fig. 30 the 
dented character of the kernels can be seen. 
Fig. 30. — Dent The ears of dent corn average from eight to 
nine inches in length, from six and one-half to 
seven inches in circumference, and have from sixteen to twenty 
rows of kernels on an ear. The plants do not sucker freely 
and usually a stalk produces one ear, except in cases of the so- 
called prolific varieties, in which two or more ears are commonly 
produced on a stalk. These varieties are adapted principally to 
the cotton-producing states. White and yellow are the predomi- 
nating colors of dent corn, although red, red and white mottled, 
blue, and purple ears are found. The growing season of dent 




Indian Corn, or Maize 



101 



4 



) 



> s. 



) 



corn varies in separate localities and with different varieties 
from ninety to one hundred and fifty days. Some three hun- 
dred and twenty-five varieties are known. 

Flint corn. — In flint corn (Fig. 31) the hard endosperm ex- 
tends along the sides and across the crown and 
surrounds the soft endosperm and the germ. 
No dent is formed. The grains are oval in 
shape and hard, smooth, and flinty in appear- 
ance. In most varieties eight rows of kernels 
are found, although ears with as many as 
sixteen rows are sometimes seen. The ears 
are about the same length as those of dent 
corn, but are much smaller in circumference. 
White and yellow are the predominating 
colors. The plants are somewhat smaller 
than those of dent corn and usually produce 
two ears. The growing season is short and 
for this reason it is the type usually grown 
in northern regions and in high altitudes of 
middle and southern sections. Canada, New 
England, New York, and Pennsylvania are 
the principal flint corn areas. Some seventy 
varieties are under cultivation. 

Pop-corn. — The endosperm of pop-corn is 
nearly all of the hard, or horny, kind, al- 
though in some varieties a thin layer of soft 
endosperm is found around the germ. The 
endosperm contains considerable water and 
when heat is applied this water changes to 
steam which expands the kernel and causes 
it to burst into the familiar white, fluffy mass of popped corn. 
Two classes are grown, — rice and pearl. In rice pop-corn 
(Fig. 32) the crown of the kernel is in a sharp point. In pearl 
varieties the crown is rounded. The plants of pop-corn are 
much smaUer than those of dent and flint corn and several 



Fig. 31. — Flint 
corn. 



102 



Effective Farming 



ears are produced on a stalk. Pop-corn can be grown in any 
region where flint or dent corn does well, but in the United 
States the growing of this type of corn commercially is confined 

largely to two counties — Sac County, Iowa 

and Loup County, Nebraska. 

Sweet corn. — The carbohydrates in sweet 

corn are largely in the form of sugar instead 

of the starch of the other types, and this ac- 
counts for the sweet taste. 

The grains when mature are 

wrinkled, as shown in Fig. 

33, and the endosperm when 

dry is horny and glassy. 

The ears vary considerably 

in size in different varieties ; 

some are small and have 

eight rows of kernels like 

the flint corn, others are 

nearly as large as good- 
sized ears of dent corn. 

In some varieties the ker- 
nels are irregularly placed 

on the ear. The stalks 

vary in height from two to 

ten feet and the plants have 

the tendency to sucker 

freely. Usually two or 
three ears grow on a stalk. Sweet corn is 
used largely for culinary purposes ; much of 
the product is canned. The growing season 
varies with different varieties and in different ^^°- 
sections from fifty to one hundred days. 

Soft corn. — The whole endosperm in soft corn is soft starch ; 
the kernel can easily be dented with the thumb nail. The 
kernels are large, often measuring three-fourths inch in width. 




Fig. 32. — White 
rice pop-corn. 



I^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l 


V ''^^1 




: ' '^'''^«H 


•^il 




/ ^* >iislH 



33. - 

corn. 



Sweet 



Indian Corn, or Maize 103 

The ears have somewhat the appearance of flint corn, except 
for the size of the kernel. Corn of this type is grown more 
largely in South America, Central America, and Mexico than 
in the United States and Canada. The plants are usually 
tall-growing and, with the exception of. a few varieties, require 
a long season for maturity. 

Pod corn. — Each kernel in pod corn is inclosed in a husk. 
Corn of this type is of no commercial importance and is grown 
as a curiosity. 

48. Uses of corn. ^ The principal use of corn is for stock 
feed. The grain itself, either whole or ground, is fed to all 
kinds of live-stock ; the stalks are used as fodder, and the whole 
plant, stalk and ears, is the best material available for silage. 
Many by-products from the manufactured products of corn 
are important stock foods. Among the manufactured products 
from corn are hominy, cerealine, breakfast foods, corn-starch, 
corn-sirup, corn-sugar, alcohol, paper, corn-oil, and corn-rubber. 
The use of sweet corn, pop-corn, and corn-meal for human foods 
is too well known to require further comment. 

49. Selection of variety of corn for planting. — One of the im- 
portant factors in profitable corn culture is the selection of the 
right variety for planting. Each corn-growing region has varie- 
ties best adapted to its particular climatic and soil condition. 
If matured ears are desired, corn is a crop that requires perfect 
acchmation in order to yield profitable returns. The farmer 
should, therefore, plant only those varieties that do well in his 
locality and should use seed that has been grown in his vicinity. 
New varieties can be acclimated, but only a relatively small 
quantity should be planted the first year. If some of the 
plants mature, from these a small quantity of seed can be se- 
lected for planting the next year, and the same plan followed 
for the succeeding years. By taking two or three years, a 
variety that has become acclimated to the region can be pro- 
duced. 

When corn is to be used for silage, it is not necessary that it 



104 Effective Farming 

mature ears ; consequently seed from a different locality can 
often be used to advantage. For example, a tall-growing south- 
ern corn may be grown in northern sections ; such a corn 
will produce abundant foliage and add materially to the quantity 
of silage, but it will not produce many ears. In order that the 
desired proportion of ears to stalks be secured, it is a good 
plan to mix the seed to be planted with that of some native 
corn that will produce ears. 

50. Selection and care of seed corn. — No matter how care- 
fully the other factors of corn-growing are provided for, a good 
stand of corn cannot be expected from poor seed. The aver- 
age yield of corn in the United States is less than twenty-six 
bushels an acre, yet there are many farmers who grow ninety 
bushels an acre on their whole corn-growing area and record 
yields as high as 228 bushels (field weight) have been grown. 
Significant in this connection is the fact that much of the low 
average yield of corn is due to the lack of proper seed selection. 

Selecting the ears from the field. — The best place to make 
the selection of seed corn is in the field. All the ears should 
be gathered as soon as ripe and in northern regions before any 
freezing has occurred. The best practice is to go through the 
field with a picking bag on the shoulder and gather the ears 
from the stalks. 

Kind of stalk from which to select ears. — The plant from which 
a seed ear is taken should be one that produces better corn than 
the surrounding individuals. If plants are growing on richer 
ground or by themselves in a field, they may by reason of these 
special advantages produce better ears, but they are not likely 
to have any greater producing power stored in the seed than a 
poor ear grown under unfavorable conditions. In the Cen- 
tral and Southern States, where there is a tendency for stalks 
to grow too tall, short thick stalks producing pendent ears 
at or below their middle point are a good type for seed. When 
exceedingly early-maturing varieties are desired, seed should 
be taken from stalks that produce ears high enough to keep 



Indian Corn, or Maize 105 

them from touching the ground when they become pendent. 
In proHfic varieties all the ears of a stalk are of equal value for 
seed. As suckers are undesirable, seed should be taken only 
from stalks that produced none. 

Kind of seed ear to select. — The size of the ear depends 
somewhat on the variety and location. Smaller ears are usually 
chosen for northern climates and larger ones for southern cli- 
mates. The ear should be nearly cylindrical in shape ; one that 
is too tapering contains less corn than a cylindrical ear of the 
same size. The rows should be straight from butt to tip; 
crooked, irregular rows mean kernels of irregular shape and 
size and, as such kernels do not pass through the planter plates 
regularly, irregular planting results. The tips and butts should 
be well filled ; this means a larger proportion of corn to cob. 

Too much space between the kernels next to the cob is a 
bad feature ; such a condition giVes a smaller proportion of 
corn to cob and the kernels are likely to have weak germs. 
P. G. Holden, of the International Harvester Company, reports 
concerning two ears of the same length and circumference, 
but one having much more space between the kernels at the 
cob than the other. One ear weighed 13.45 ounces and the 
other 10.12 ounces; the first shelled out 35 per cent more 
corn than the other. The width of the furrows between the 
rows should not show too much space ; the space reduces 
the quantity of corn to cob. In some varieties, however, 
more space is allowed than in others. Depth of grain should 
be carefully looked after ; shallow grains mean a small shelling 
percentage of corn. In general, the kernels in dent varieties 
should be half as long as the diameter of the cob. 

The kernels should be wedge-shaped ; they will then fit 
snugly together at the cob. Tapering kernels mean space at 
the cob and a small shelling percentage of corn to cob. They 
should have strong healthy-looking germs ; dark color is an 
indication that the germs may have been frozen, and wrinkled 
germs indicate immaturity. The kernels in the different parts 



106 



Effective Farming 



of the ear, except at the butts and tips, should be of nearly 
uniform shape and size ; they will then drop regularly through 
the plates of the planter. The ear should be well matured ; 
immature corn will not keep well in storage and if planted will 
produce weak stalks and give poor yields. 

Caring for the seed ears. — As soon as gathered, the seed ears 
should be stored in a well-ventilated place and arranged so that 




Fig. 34. — Seed corn strung with binder twine. 

they will not touch each other. Stringing them with binder 
twine (Fig. 34), or placing them on wire racks (Fig. 35), are 
very satisfactory ways of arranging them for drying. The 
wire racks are made by cutting electrically-welded lawn fenc- 
ing into strips and bending the wires on which the ears are to 
be placed. When the corn is as dry as old corn, it should be 
taken from the twine or racks and stored in a cool dry place 



Indian Corn, or Maize 



107 



where neither moths, rats, nor mice can injure it. An attic 
or upstairs room, if free from moisture, is a good place. A 
pound of moth-balls or naphthalene should be stored with 
each bushel to protect it from the grain moth. Covering the 
storage boxes or 
crates with fly 
screening or woven 
wire of a fine mesh 
will protect the corn 
from mice and rats. 
If the grain-weevil 
is prevalent, fumi- 
gate with carbon 
disulfide as directed 
in paragraph 58. 

51. Testing seed 
corn for germina- 
tion. — That it pays 
to test seed corn 
for germination has 
been proved repeat- 
edly in all parts of 
the country. It 
was found at the 
Iowa Experiment 
Station, for exam- 
ple, in carefully con- 
ducted two-year 
tests, that the testing increased the acre-profits 93.6 per cent the 
first year, 85.7 per cent the second year, or an increase of 19.6 
bushels and 10.1 bushels. In these experiments the cost of test- 
ing enough seed to plant an acre varied from 14.4 cents to 57.6 
cents. Both home-made and manufactured testers were used 
and some equally good results were secured from both. 

Sawdust-box tester. — One of the most used home-made 




Seed corn on racks made from wire 
fencing. 



108 Effective Farming 

testers is the sawdust-box tester. To make and use one of 
these the following directions should be observed : Secure a 
box 3 or 4 inches deep and about 30 inches square. Place 
in a burlap bag enough sawdust to half fill the box and soak 
it bag and all in water for several hours. When moist spread 
it in a layer in the box and press it to a smooth even surface. 
Rule off a piece of muslin about the size of the box into squares 
about 2^ inches each way and number these squares 1, 2, 3, 



Fig. 36. — Seed corn tested in the sawdust-box tester. 

and so on. Place the cloth in the box and tack it to the edges 
and corners. Place the ears to be tested side by side on a table 
or shelf and number them in order 1, 2, 3, and so on. Fig. 
36 shows the ears arranged on a table as here described. With 
a sharp-pointed instrument remove six kernels from each ear 
and place them in the square in the box that accords with the 
number of the ear. When removing the kernels take one from 
near the tip, one from near the middle, and one from near the 
butt, turn the ear over and remove six more in the same manner. 
When the kernels have been placed in the squares lay a piece 
of muslin over them and sprinkle water on the cloth ; above 



Indian Corn, or Maize 



109 



this place another layer of cloth somewhat larger than the box 
and fill in about 2 inches of moist sawdust above this, press it 
down firmly, and fold the edges of the cloth over the sawdust, 




Fig. 37. — Kernels of 



corn sprouted in the sawdust-box tester. 



as shown in Fig. 36. Keep this tester in a warm room and the 
kernels should germinate in about six days. At the end of the 
time remove the upper cloth, being careful to avoid misplac- 
ing the kernels in the squares. Examine the kernels and dis- 
card as seed all ears which show one or more dead or decidedly 



no 



Effective Farming 



weak kernels. Figure 37 shows kernels tested in this way. 
Which ones would you discard? 

Rag-doll tester. — Another home-made tester that has been 
used with very good results is known as the rag-doll tester. 
One of these is shown in Fig. 38. The illustration is furnished 
by the courtesy of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station 
and the following description and comments are from its 
Bulletin 135. 

" One of the cheapest as well as the most convenient and 
accurate methods which can be employed in testing seed corn 




Fig. 38. — The rag-doll seed corn tester. 

is that known as the rag-doll method. In preparing to make 
this test, secure sheeting of a good quality and tear into strips 
from 8 to 10 inches wide and 3 to 5 feet long. Where these are 
to be used very much it is well to hem the edges as otherwise 
the ravelings sometimes disarrange the kernels in unrolling. 
Each cloth should then be marked with a heavy pencil, first, 
lengthwise in the middle and then crosswise, as shown in the 
accompanying illustration, making squares about 3 inches 
wide. Number the squares as shown in the illustration 
also. 



Indian Corn^ or Maize 111 

'' Moisten one of these cloths and lay it out on a board of 
convenient size in front of the ears which are to be tested. 
Remove six kernels from ear No. 1 and place in the square 
No. 1 in the upper left hand corner of the cloth. Take six 
kernels from ear No. 2 and place in square No. 2 in the upper 
right hand corner, ear No. 3 in the next square on the left hand 
side, and ear No. 4 in a corresponding position on the right 
side. When the cloth has been filled begin at the upper end 
with ears Nos. 1 and 2, etc.,, and roll the cloth up. Since the 
cloth is moistened the kernels will not push out of place. If a 
small irregular shaped piece of wood or some other substance 
is used as a core in rolhng, a more uniform germination may 
be secured. When the rolling of the cloth has been finished, 
tie a string rather loosely about the middle of the roll; or 
better still, use a rubber band, and number this roll No. 1. 
Then proceed with roll No. 2 in the same way. As many rolls 
may be used as are necessary to contain the corn which one has 
to test. From 20 to 50 ears can be tested in each roll, depend- 
ing upon the length. 

'' After the rolls have been filled they should be placed in a 
bucket of water where they may remain for from 2 to 18 hours, 
depending upon the preference of the operator. At the end 
of this time pour off the water and turn the bucket upside 
down over the rolls — or a common dry goods box may be used 
for this purpose. A couple of small pieces of wood should 
preferably be laid under the rolls and one edge of the pail should 
be lifted from one half to one inch in order to give sufficient 
ventilation. Some have left the pail in an upright position, 
placing a few sticks or corn cobs in the bottom of the pail to 
insure proper drainage, and then packing a moist, coarse cloth 
over the rolls to prevent excessive drying. At the end of five 
days the kernels should be ready to read. 

'' Depending upon the arrangement of the ears, select, first, 
either roll No. 1 or the last roll filled. This cloth will be un- 
rolled in front of the ears which are represented. Examine 



112 Effective Farming 

all the kernels carefully. In all cases in which all six kernels 
are not strong in germination the ear should be thrown away." 

52. Soils and climate for corn. — A well drained loam rich 
in humus is the soil best adapted for corn. Heavy clays and 
sandy soils are not usually good for this crop. In rotation corn 
does well after a grass or legume. A loamy piece that has 
been in clover, alfalfa, or cowpeas is an ideal medium for a 
planting of corn. 

The crop requires a long growing season, abundant sunshine, 
and a plentiful supply of moisture. These conditions are found 
in the corn-belt states, which, together with the soil types 
found there, make the region well suited for corn. This must 
not be taken to mean, however, that many other sections are 
not adaptable for corn-growing. 

53. Enriching soils for corn. — The use of stable manure 
on land to be planted to corn is profitable. When a sod piece 
is to be plowed for corn, the manure is often applied the spring 
before ; it will then benefit both the hay crop and the corn that 
follows. Another practice is to apply the manure in the fall 
after the hay has been cut and before the sod has been plowed 
under. In this method the manure benefits the corn crop 
and to some extent the crops that follow. 

Commercial fertilizer is often used with good results for corn, 
especially in the Eastern and Southern States. The formula 
to use depends on the soil, and the county agents in the several 
states can give good advice to those desiring information about 
a particular type of soil. 

54. Preparation of land for corn. — The time of year land 
should be plowed for corn varies in different parts and with 
different farmers in the same section. Some plow in the fall ; 
others plow in the spring. Some of the advantages of fall 
plowing are that the vegetable matter turned underneath the 
furrow-slice has time to decay, the freezing and thawing of the 
upturned land, if the farm is where the ground freezes, tends 
to pulverize the soil, many Jarvse of insects are killed by the 



Indian Corn, or Maize 113 

freezing weather of winter, and the work is done at a time when 
other work on the farm is not pressing. A disadvantage is 
that much soluble plant-food is hkely to be lost during the win- 
ter by percolation to depths below the reach of roots. This 
appUes especially when the ground does not remain frozen 
during the winter. Another disadvantage is that the soil 
is likely to wash badly during the winter. 

If plowing is done in the spring, it should be early in order to 
give time for the sod and manure to decay. The soil bacteria 
and the aeration of the soil are more active in plowed than in 
unplowed land ; consequently the early plowing, through the 
increased action of these agencies, adds to the supply of avail- 
able plant-food for the corn crop. Early spring plowing, if 
followed by harrowing to form a mulch on the soil, will conserve 
moisture. This is an especial advantage in a dry spring. 

Following the plowing, the land must be made into a fine, 
easily worked seed-bed. Clods left in the field will be trouble- 
some during the whole growing season, and should be broken 
up before the seed is planted. Corn planted on poorly pre- 
pared land has little chance to make a good crop. 

55. Planting the seed. — Corn can be planted as soon as 
danger of frost is over and the ground has become sufficiently 
warm to insure germination. The time, of course, wih vary 
considerably in different localities. 

Depth of planting. — The depth that corn is to be planted 
should be governed largely by the physical condition of the 
soil. In most soils of good tilth, the planting should be shallow, 
about two inches. In a dry soil that is somewhat lumpy, deeper 
planting, from three to five inches, is likely to give better results. 

Methods of planting. — The two general methods of planting 
corn are in hills and in drills. When planted in hills, from three 
to five kernels are placed in groups from three to four feet apart 
each way. The number of kernels to the hill and the distance 
apart varies with the condition of the soil. In a fertile soil 
the planting can be thicker than in poor soil. 



114 Effective Farming 

Corn planted in drills is placed in rows, each kernel in a sep- 
arate place. The distance apart of the kernels varies in dif- 
ferent localities from eight to fifteen inches, depending on the 
soil conditions. The space between the rows varies, also, 
from three feet, six inches to five feet. 

Often in the South the corn is planted on ridges, or hills of 
earth, with deep furrows between the ridges. This is largely 
because the drainage is poor and during a wet time the water 
will stand in the furrows and the ridge will be above the stand- 
ing water. On sandy or loamy soils in the South, corn is some- 
times planted in the water furrow instead of on the ridge. 
This plan is not advisable if the soils are at all heavy, but 
where soils are inclined to be dry, there is an advantage in this 
method on account of the more moist condition of the soil in 
the furrow. 

Many of the experiment stations have tested the different 
methods of planting for their states and have published the 
results in bulletins. It will be well for pupils and farmers to 
communicate with the officers of these institutions to find out 
what has been done along this line. 

Rate of planting, — The rate of planting varies considerably, 
ranging from three thousand to fifteen thousand stalks to the 
acre. If the hills are four or five feet apart with two stalks 
to the hill, as they are in some parts of the Gulf States, only 
about three thousand plants are grown to the acre. If they are 
three feet, six inches apart each way with three or four stalks 
to the hill, as often planted in the North, twelve thousand 
stalks are grown to the acre. 

Implements for planting. — A large part of the corn grown 
in the United States is planted by means of corn-planters. 
For small areas a hand planter, known as a jabber, is very 
often used. In the corn-belt two-row planters are the chief 
kinds. Many of these are arranged to drop the kernels in 
groups and are known as check-row planters. One is shown 
in Fig. 39. In the South much of the corn is planted by means 



Indian Corn, or Maize 



115 



of a one-row planter, the same implement often being used for 
planting cotton (Fig. 208). In some parts of the West and 
South, a lister is used for planting corn. This is an implement 
fitted with two shovels so placed that they throw a furrow both 
ways. The hoe through which the corn feeds is between these 
shovels and the corn is planted at the bottom of the furrow. 
The use of the lister is limited to loose, fertile soils. In the 




Fig. 



39. — A two-row corn-planter arranged with wire to drop the kernels 
into hills. 



West the land is not plowed before the corn is planted and sub- 
sequent cultivation fills in the furrow as the corn grows. 

Testing the planter. — A very important factor in the suc- 
cessful growing of corn is the testing of the planter to find out 
whether it will drop the kernels regularly. The testing should, 
of course, be done with some of the seed that is to be planted. 
Drawing the planter across a barn floor or along a stretch of 
road is a good way to determine how it is dropping the kernels. 
In case it does not drop regularly, the planter plates should 



116 



Effective Farming 



be changed or sometimes the difficulty can be overcome by fil- 
ing the holes in the plates to make them larger. 

56. Cultivating the fields. — Corn requires frequent and 
thorough cultivation, especially in the early stages of growth. 
The cultivating not only kills the weeds, but it aerates the soil 
and conserves the moisture, which corn requires in abundance 
for its best development. A weeder or a spike-tooth harrow 
with the teeth turned back should be used even before the 




Fig. 40. — A corn-cultivator equipped with small shovels. 



plants are above the ground. Many weeds will thus be killed 
and a mulch formed. If the work is done during the middle 
of a hot, sunshiny day, these implements can be used until 
the plants are six or eight inches high. In the heat of the day 
the plants are not easily broken. After the plants are large 
a corn-cultivator equipped with small shovels should be used 
(Figs. 40 and 204). Shallow cultivation (about two inches) 
is best for corn, as deep cultivation cuts off too many roots. 
In dry seasons the cultivation should be kept up until well into 
the summer to conserve all the soil-moisture possible. When 



Indian Corny or Maize 



117 



the plants become tall, a one-horse cultivator can be run be- 
tween the rows. 

57. Harvesting the crop. — The method of harvesting varies 
with the use to be made of the crop. If mature ears are de- 
sired, they are husked either from the standing stalks or from 
the stalks after they are cut and placed in shocks. In the corn- 
belt states, it is a common practice to drive through the field 
with a team and double-box wagon, husk the ears from the 




Fig. 41. — A corn-binder with bundle elevator. 



standing stalks, and throw them into the wagon. Live-stock 
are allowed to run in the fields after the corn is husked to eat 
any nubbins left and what stalks they will. Corn that is to 
be shocked before the husking is often cut by hand with large 
knives. There are on the market machines that can profitably 
be employed in cutting the stalks. Of these the most efficient 
is the corn-binder, which cuts the stalks, binds them in bundles, 
and either drops them on the ground or elevates them into 
a wagon driven by the side, as shown in Fig. 41. The bundles 
are placed in shocks and when the ears are dry they are husked 
(Fig. 42) and the bundles of stalks (corn stover) are stored for 
use later in the feeding of live-stock. Corn, when both ears and 



118 



Effective Farming 




Fig. 42. — Husking corn from the shock. 



Indian Corn, or Maize 



119 



stover are to be fed, is usually cut when the husks are dry and 
about a third of the leaves are still green. This gives the best 
yield of both ears and stover. Before this stage the corn is 
too immature and if cut too late many of the leaves will drop off ; 
consequently the feeding value of the stover is much lessened. 
When only the ears 
are desired, the cut- 
ting may be delayed 
until the stalks are 
mature. A machine 
known as a husker 
and shredder is often 
employed to remove 
the ears from the 
cut stalks and to 
shred the fodder 
into small pieces. 
This shredded fod- 
der is easily stored 
and is good feed, 
especially for cattle. 
Fodder-pulling is 
a method employed 
in some parts of the 
South for securing 
forage from the corn 
plant. Handfuls of 
leaves are pulled from the standing stalks, tied together, and 
hung on the stripped stalks to cure. Topping of corn is another 
method used in the South. This consists in removing the top 
of the stalk above the ear and placing these in shocks to cure 
for fodder. In either method the ears are later removed for 
grain. Experiments have shown that these practices result 
in a loss of grain ; consequently they are not advisable unless 
the fodder is of sufficient value to offset the loss of grain. 




Fig. 43. — Filling the silo. 



120 Effective Farming 

Corn for silage is harvested when it is somewhat immature. 
The grains should have passed the milk stage and glazed to 
some extent. The stalks will still be partly green. In case 
the corn cannot be cut until a little past this stage, the silage 
should be wet down in the silo. A corn-binder is very useful 
for cutting corn for silage, as the bundles can be hauled to the 
silo as soon as they have been harvested. They are prepared 
by means of a silage-cutter, a machine that cuts the stalks into 
small pieces and elevates them to the top of the silo. They 
fall to the bottom and, as the silo fills, the mass of material is 
kept level by men with rakes or forks stationed for that pur- 
pose in the silo. Figure 43 shows a typical silo-filling scene. 
Notice the bundles of corn, the silage-cutter, the pipe for 
elevating the cut corn, and the tractor that furnishes the 
power. 

58. Pests of corn. — Several insect and a few fungous pests 
by their ravages reduce considerably the yield of corn in the 
United States. Among these pests are corn root-worms, 
corn root-louse, wire-worms, cutworms, white-grubs, corn ear- 
worms, grain- weevils, chinch-bugs, army-worms, corn-smut, 
and ear-rot. 

Corn root-worms. — Among the most troublesome of the 
insect pests of corn are the root- worms, two species of which 
are known, the Northern, or Western, and the Southern. 
The eggs of both species are laid in the ground in the fall. They 
hatch about the last of June or the first of July and soon enter 
the tip of the corn root and burrow back and forth lengthwise. 
Often five or six worms are found in a root and Holden reports 
465 from a hill. The roots injured by the worms die and the 
plants become so weakened that they blow over easily. The 
worms when full-grown are about one-third of an inch in length, 
about as large around as a pin, and are practically colorless. 
They go into the pupa stage in late summer and soon emerge 
as beetles about an inch in length. The beetles of the Northern 
worm are grass-green in color; those of the Southern species 



Indian Corn, or Maize 121 

are yellowish-green with twelve black spots on the back. The 
mature insects feed on the silk and on the kernels at the tip of 
the ears. Crop rotation helps to destroy them. The Northern 
worms feed on no other roots than those of corn ; consequently 
depriving the larvae of their food will starve them. The South- 
em worms feed on some other species of plants ; nevertheless 
their principal food is corn roots and rotation is, therefore, a 
benefit. Experience in the corn-belt shows that when a sys- 
tem of crop rotation is practiced, little damage is done to the 
corn by this insect, but when corn follows corn the damage is 
likely to be excessive. 

Cor7i root-louse. — Like all members of the plant-lice family, 
the corn root-louse gets its nourishment by sucking sap from the 
plants. The plant, deprived of some of its food, soon weakens 
and, if the ravages are excessive, may die. The lice are smaller 
than the head of a pin and are found in large numbers on corn 
roots. There are from nine to twelve generations a year and, 
as may be inferred, the damage done by such a large number 
of insects is very great. Lice are always found associated with 
ants which guard and care for them and in return for this 
service the lice excrete through two tubes on the back of the 
abdomen a sweet liquid known as honey-dew on which the 
ants feed. The finding of ants near a hill of corn nearly always 
means that lice are at work on the roots. The effect of the 
insects is to retard growth and to produce a yellowing of the 
corn. Often the tips of the leaves will have a purplish tinge 
and the stalks a slightly reddish color. As the corn is retarded 
in growth, it is likely to be caught by early frosts, the yield 
will be poor, and the quality not of the best. When the corn 
roots become woody, the ants transfer the lice to roots of smart- 
weed and foxtail. Weedy fields are for this reason often badly 
infested with the insect. The principal remedies are rotation 
of crops and early and clean cultivation. Rotation of crops 
deprives the lice of their food and the ants will take them away. 
Clean cultivation destroys smart weed and foxtail and, if done 



122 Effective Farming 

before the corn plants are above the ground, hinders the ants 
from transferring the hce to the roots of the corn. 

Wire-worm. — Another pest of corn is the wire-worm. 
These are the larvae of click beetles. They damage the corn 
by eating the seed in the ground and by boring and eating the 
stems and roots of the young plants. The larva3 of different 
species vary in length from one-half to one and one-half inches. 
The eggs are laid in sod land and the insects require from three 
to five years to reach the adult stage. When corn follows grass 
in a field that is badly infested with the wire-worms, the dam- 
age to the corn is likely to be great. One remedy is to keep the 
land in grass only a short time, perhaps one or two years, as 
the worms are always more numerous in old sod fields than in 
those that have been in grass only a short time. Fall plowing 
also helps to lessen the numbers of both the beetles and the 
larvae. 

Cutworms. — Often cutworms are troublesome in corn 
fields. They are larvae of many different kinds of moths. 
During the summer the moths lay eggs on grass leaves and the 
larvae soon hatch and feed on the green leaves. During the 
winter they remain in the ground and in the spring come out 
and feed on growing plants, cutting off the plants just above 
the ground. They are found in large numbers in fields that 
have been in grass a long time. Thus one way to control 
these worms is to practice a rotation with grass kept on the 
ground only one or two years. Fall plowing is an aid, as it 
exposes them to the winter weather and kills the vegetation 
on which they feed in the early spring. On small areas the 
worms can be poisoned, but this method is not practicable 
on large areas. A mixture made according to the formula, 
forty pounds of wheat bran, two quarts of molasses, and one 
pound of paris green, is moistened with water and a teaspoonful 
placed near each hill of corn. The molasses attracts the worms 
and, if the mixture is eaten, the poison kills them. 

White-gruh. — The larvae of May beetles, or June bugs, 



Indian Corn, or Maize 123 

known as white-grubs are often a pest in corn fields. They feed 
on the roots of the young plants. It has been found that they 
are less numerous in fields that are kept in sod only a short 
time than in old sod fields and the remedy, therefore, is a short 
rotation for the grass crop. Fall plowing is also an aid as 
it exposes the grubs to the weather and destroys the plants 
they would feed on in early spring. 

Corn ear-worm. — An insect known as the corn ear-worm 
that is about one and one-half inches in length and varies in 
color from green to brown does considerable damage to corn. 
It is the same as the cotton boll-worm. The worms are covered 
with stripes of practically the same color as the body and on 
each segment are eight black spots from which short hairs ex- 
tend. This worm is the larva of a large, grayish moth which 
usually lays the eggs on the silk or leaves of the plant. The 
larvae feed principally on the tip of the ear and destroy the 
grain, doing damage by providing a place for mold, rot, and 
grain-weevils to enter the ear. They sometimes feed also on 
the upper leaves of the plant. These worms when on sweet 
corn very much lessen its value. No very effective remedy 
has been found, although it is claimed that late fall plowing 
helps to reduce their number. 

Grain-ioeevil. — A serious pest of corn, especially in the 
South, is the grain-weevil. The insects attack the matured 
grain in the fields and also in the crib after the corn has been 
harvested. Not much can be done to stop their work in the 
field, except to resort to late planting and to decrease the num- 
ber of ear-worms. Early varieties of corn are more susceptible 
than late ones. To combat the insects in stored grain, fumiga- 
tion with carbon disulfide is employed. This is a liquid that 
evaporates quickly when exposed to the air ; in the gaseous 
form it is heavier than air and for this reason should be placed 
at the top of an in closure to be fumigated. Tight bins are 
necessary. For shelled corn twenty pounds of the carbon disul- 
fide is used for each thousand cubic feet of space in the in closure 



124 



Effective Farming 



to be fumigated. It may be placed in shallow vessels on top 
of the corn or be poured on the pile, which should be covered 

with a heavy cloth and left 
undisturbed for twenty-four 
hours. Carbon disulfide is 
very inflammable and all fire 
should be kept away during 
the fumigation. 

Migratory insects in corn. 
— Migratory insects that 
sometimes damage corn are 
chinch-bugs and army- 
worms. They can often be 
prevented from entering a 
corn field by throwing two 
furrows together about the 
field and maintaining in the 
ridge formed at the top of 
the furrow-slices a dust 
barrier by means of drag- 
ging a log along the ridge. 
Holes dug at intervals in 
front of the furrows on the 
side from which the insects 
are approaching will catch 
many of them as they try 
to get over the barrier, and 
water with a little kerosene 
placed in the holes will kill 
the insects. 

Corn-smut. — The most 
troublesome fungous disease 
of corn is smut. It appears in black masses of spores on any part 
of the plant except the roots, but is usually found on the ears or 
tassels. Fig. 44 shows a smut-infested ear. Warm moist 




Fig. 44. — Corn-smut. 



Indian Corn, or Maize 125 

weather is favorable for the growth of the spores and for this 
reason the disease is more prevalent during some seasons than 
others. About the only way to combat it is to go through the 
fields two or three times during the growing season and collect 
the masses. This would be worth the time only in a badly 
infested field. 

Ear-rots. — Several kinds of ear-rots are found on corn. 
Of these the dry ear-rot is the most common. This affects 
cob, kernels, and husks. The ear becomes dark in color, 
except for mold between the rows of kernels. The best remedy 
is to burn the diseased ears as they are collected at harvest 
time and, on badly infested fields, to burn the stalks. The 
spread of the different rots is more prevalent in warm moist 
seasons than in dry ones. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe and compare the four chief types of corn. 

2. When mature ears are desired why should a farmer select home- 
grown seed corn for planting? 

3. Which is better, selection of seed corn from the field or from 
the crib? Why? 

4. Why should a farmer test the seed corn that he expects to plant ? 

5. Describe briefly an ideal seed ear of dent corn. 

6. When is corn usually planted in your vicinity ? How does this 
compare with the time a hundred miles north or south of you ? 

7. Why should a corn-planter be tested before planting the field 
to corn? 

8. Tell of the benefits of frequent shallow cultivation of a corn 
field. Why should deep cultivation be avoided? 

9. Give the life histories of the Northern and of the Southern 
corn root- worms. 

10. What remedies are used to combat the corn root-louse? 

EXERCISES 

1. Characteristics of corn. — Examine carefully ears of dent, flint, 
pop, and sweet corn and write in your notebooks the characteristics 
of each. Remove a few kernels of each kind of corn and compare 
them as to size, shape, flintiness, and size of germ. Soak the kernels 



126 Effective Farming 

in water for a few hours. Cut part of them lengthwise of the germ and 
notice the depth of germ, the hard and the soft endosperm, and the 
color of the seed-coat. Cut the others crosswise of the germ and notice 
the width of germ and the hard and the soft endosperm. 

In the fall soon after school opens visit fields of the different types 
of corn found in your vicinity and observe the character of growth 
of each, the root development of the plants, and the character of the 
stalks and the leaves. 

2. Percentage of stand. — Count the stalks in an average square 
rod of a field of corn and compute the percentage of stand compared 
with a perfect stand. 

3. Harvesting and storing corn. — On a field trip when corn is being 
harvested in the vicinity, study and write descriptions of the methods 
of harvesting and storing of the crop as practiced by different farmers. 

4. Gathering seed corn. — Every school where agriculture is studied 
will require a supply of seed corn for use in the class-room work. In 
order that the best methods of securing and caring for the seed may be 
practiced, none of the details given on the previous pages should be 
neglected. When securing the seed for the school, go through the 
field at the proper time in the fall with a packing bag over the shoulder 
and select the ears. Pupils should follow this plan for their home 
farms and often the teacher can arrange to have the school select seed 
ears for persons who have no pupils attending the school. By follow- 
ing this plan the school increases its value to the community. A por- 
tion of the seed ears gathered should be reserved for use in class-room 
work. 

5. Caring for seed corn. — After the seed ears are gathered, string 
them as shown in Fig. 41, place them on wire racks as shown in Fig. 42, 
or plan some other way of arranging them for drying. Store the ears 
in a cool, dry place where they are free from mice and rats and see that 
they are protected from grain moth and weevil. 

6. Testing seed corn. — Make several sawdust-box and rag-doll 
testers. During the winter test the seed that has been gathered in the . 
fall. Compare the results of both testers by testing lots of the same 
seed in both. Make a record of the time necessary to test the corn 
and compute the cost, figuring the usual price paid for farm labor in 
your vicinity. 

7. Judging corn. — When scoring corn a certain standard of per- 
fection is set up as an ideal and the ear or exhibit is selected according 
to this standard. Beginners usually make use of a score-card, but after 
they have had some experience, the score-card is no longer used, the ear 
or sample being judged without it. A score-card may be defined as a 



Indian Corn, or Maize 127 

description of an ideal ear with the various qualities arranged in logical 
order and given numerical ratings, the total of which is one hundred. 
Score-cards are useful in making a logical study of the different quali- 
ties and in emphasizing their relative importance. The ratings are 
arbitrary and, as different persons will not give the same weight to all 
of the different qualities, the cards are not uniform. However, they 
serve their purpose when they teach the pupils to observe closely the 
various qualities and point out their relative importance. Many of the 
state agricultural colleges furnish score-cards to teachers through their 
extension departments. When these can be secured they should be 
used, because they are adapted especially to the work in the state. 
On page 128 is given a score-card from United States Department of 
Agriculture Bulletin 281. This is a very good card and can well be 
used in schools where cards of local adaptation are not available. 

Dealers in agricultural laboratory supplies furnish score-cards at a 
very nominal price and often these are purchased in quantities by school 
authorities and used in the classes. 

When scoring a sample, a cut, or deduction, should be made for each 
ear deficient in each quality listed in the score-card. Suppose a ten- 
ear sample is to be judged and ten points is given for a quality, a cut 
of one point should be made for each ear badly deficient in this quality. 
If five points is given for a quality, a cut of one-half a point is made. 
If twenty-five points is given, a cut of two and one-half points is made. 
In case the ear is only slightly deficient in a quality, the extreme cut is 
not made, the ears being cut according to the judgment of the scorer. 

The general practice in scoring a sample is for the scorer to draw 
toward him ears that require no cut and push away from him those 
that need the full cut. Thus three classes are made and it is easy then 
to make a fair estimate of the amount to cut the whole sample. 

Using the score-card, practice scoring and judging as follows. With 
a ten-ear exhibit before you, select the ear that is best in maturity 
and seed condition. Select the ear that is poorest in this respect. 
Arrange the ears of the samples in order, one, two, three, and so on, 
with only this quality considered. Proceed in like manner with all the 
other points on the score-card. Next, score the sample, taking into 
consideration all the points. Follow this by scoring three samples 
and arranging them in order according to the total scores. After hav- 
ing had experience in scoring several samples, arrange three samples 
and place them in order by comparing them without using the score- 
card. Next, score these same samples and compare with your previous 
placing. Continue this comparative judging until you can place sam- 
ples in order accurately without using the score-card. 



128 



Effective Farming 



Score-card for Corn 
Variety Exhibit No. 



Points 



Maturity and seed condition 

To be of value for grain, corn must mature 
and produce good, hard seed. 

Uniformity 

Ears should be alike in shape, size, color, 
indentation, and size of kernel. 

Kernels 

Flat side, slightly wedge-shaped with large, 
smooth germ. Edge, with parallel sides 
and of medium thickness. Not chaffy. 

Weight of ear 

Dent varieties, as usually planted, produce 
only one ear per stalk, hence yield per 
acre depends largely upon weight of 
shelled corn per ear. 

Length and proportion 

Varies with locality and variety. Experi- 
ments show that a continued selection 
of short, thick ears reduces the yield. 

Butts 

The base of the ear should be covered with 
even-sized kernels in straight rows which 
are a continuation of those at the center 
of the ear. The shank should be large 
enough to support the ear and no larger. 

Tips 

Should be covered with kernels of the same 
depth and be in rows which are a con- 
tinuation of those at the center of the ear. 

Space between rows 

Should be very slight and in straight lines. 

Color 

The color of both grain and cobs should 
be uniform, showing trueness to type or 
strain. 



Total 



Perfect 



25 



15 



15 



15 



10 



5 
5 

100 



Scorer's 



Corrected 



Remarks 

Name of scorer 



Date 



Indian Corn, or Maize 129 

8. Testing the corn-planter. — In the spring just before corn plant- 
ing time, visit several farms and test the corn-planters found there, as 
described on a previous page. 

REFERENCES 

'Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 398- 
421. The Macmillan Co. 

Montgomery, E.G., Productive Farm Crops. The Lippincott Co. 

Montgomery, E. G., The Corn Crops. The Macmillan Co. 

Livingston, George, Field Crop Production. The Macmillan Co. 

The Book of Corn. Orange Judd Co. 

Harris and Stewart, Principles of Agronomy. The Macmillan Co. 

Nolan, A. W., and Green, J. H., Corn Growing. Row, Peterson & Co. 

Davis, K. C, Productive Plant Husbandry. J. B. Lippincott Co. 

Wilson, A. D., and Warburton, C. W., Field Crops. Webb Publishing 
Co. 

MeCall, A. G., Studies of Crops. Wiley and Sons. 

Farmers' Bulletin 229, Production of Good Seed Corn. 

Farmers' Bulletin 537, How to Grow an Acre of Corn. 

Farmers' Bulletin 415, Seed Corn. 

Farmers' Bulletin 253, The Germination of Seed Corn. 

Farmers' Bulletin 414, Corn Cultivation. 

Farmers' Bulletin 313, Harvesting and Storing of Corn. 

Farmers' Bulletin 773, Corn Growing under Droughty Conditions. 

Farmers' Bulletin 553, Pop Corn for the Home. 

Farmers' Bulletin 554, Pop Corn for Market. 

Farmers' Bulletin 617, School Lessons on Corn. 

Farmers' Bulletin 400, A More Profitable Corn-planting Method. 

Farmers' Bulletin 729, Corn Culture in Southeastern States. 

Farmers' Bulletin 739, Cutworms and their Control in Corn and Other 
Cereal Crops. 

Farmers' Bulletin 773, Corn Growing under Droughty Conditions. 

Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Bulletin 135, 
The Germination Test of Seed Corn. 

Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, 111. Bulletin 87, 
The Structure of the Corn Kernel and the Composition of its Differ- 
ent Parts. 



CHAPTER VII 

SMALL GRAINS 

Wheat 

Distribution and characteristics of wheat. 
Kinds of wheat. 

Spelt group, durum wheat group, bread wheat group. 
Uses of wheat. 
Soils for wheat. 
Seeding of wheat. 

Rate of seeding. 

Methods of seeding. 

Depth of planting. 
Harvesting of wheat. 
Weeds of wheat fields. 
Insects of wheat fields. 

Hessian fly, chinch-bug. 
Fungous diseases of wheat. 

Loose smut, stinking smut, rust, scab. 

Oats 

Distribution, yields, and characteristics of oats. 

Kinds of oats. 

Uses of oats. 

Climate and soils for oats. 

Preparing the ground for oats. 

Planting the seed. 

Harvesting of oats. 

Enemies of oats. 

Rye 

Distribution and characteristics of rye. 

Uses of rye. 

Climate and soils for rye. 

130 



Small Grains 131 

Planting the seed. 
Harvesting of rye. 
Enemies of rye. 

Barley 

Distribution and characteristics of barley. 

Uses of barley. 

Climate and soils for barley. 

Planting the seed. 

Harvesting of barley. 

Enemies of barley. 

Rice 

Distribution and characteristics of rice. 

Uses of rice. 

Climate and soils for rice. 

Cultural methods. 

Buckwheat 

Distribution and characteristics of buckwheat. 
Cultural methods. 

The staple small grain is wheat, the flour of which is baked 
into the many kinds of bread so much prized by the Caucasian 
races. Vast areas of North America are devoted to the grow- 
ing of this cereal and many machines have been devised to 
aid in its culture and harvesting. The milling of wheat into 
flour is itself a large industry and gives employment to thou- 
sands of persons. In many parts oats is an important crop. 
It is the most used of any of the grains as feed for horses, and 
in the form of oat-meal is an important article of human food. 
Rye is not extensively grown in the United States, but in some 
regions it is an important crop. The grain is used chiefly as 
live-stock feed, although some of it is milled into flour for human 
consumption. Barley is the malt-producing grain. As will 
be learned later, about half the barley grown in the United 
States has been used for the making of beer and other malt 
beverages. As a live-stock feed, barley has considerable value 
and in some regions is fed extensively. Rice in Asia feeds mil- 
lions of people, but its production in the United States is lim- 



132 Effective Farming 

ited to areas in some of the Southern States and in Cahfornia. 
It is an important article of food and its use by American peo- 
ple is increasing. With the extensive export of wheat to feed 
European peoples at war, the other grains are assuming addi- 
tional importance as human food. 

WHEAT 

59. Distribution and characteristics of wheat. — Nearly 
all countries having a temperate climate produce wheat. 
The United States, Russia, France, and India are the largest 
producers. This cereal is also grown extensively in Austria- 
Hungary, Italy, Argentina, Germany, and Canada. In the 
United States the five leading wheat states are North Dakota, 
Minnesota, Kansas, South Dakota, and Nebraska. 

Wheat is an annual belonging to the grass family. The 
spikelets are arranged alternately on the rachis, or top of the 
stem, forming a spike. The culm in most varieties is hollow 
except at the nodes. In a very few varieties, however, the 
stem is partly filled with pith. The length of stem varies 
considerably in different varieties and when the crop is grown on 
various soils. Some varieties have stems that reach a height 
of two and one-half to three feet, while others on the same soil 
will grow to be four or five feet tall. Wheat tillers freely, 
often one seed producing a dozen or more stalks. The leaves 
are rather short and narrow and vary in different varieties in 
length, width, smoothness, and prominence of veins. The 
leaf -sheath is hairy as in rye; whereas in barley and oats it 
is smooth. As the plant matures the leaves wither and when 
the seeds are ripening only the top of the stem and the upper 
leaf are green. The roots are fibrous and are found mostly 
in the upper fifteen to twenty inches of soil. When a kernel 
of wheat sprouts in the ground, three temporary roots branch 
from the hypocotyl and make up the temporary root system. 
After the plumule is above the ground, permanent roots start 
from a node of the stem. The temporary roots soon wither 



Small Grains 



133 



and the plant obtains its nourishment wholly from the per- 
manent roots. Deep planting does not mean deep rooting, 
because the permanent roots form about an inch below the 
surface no matter how deeply the temporary roots, which come 
direct from the seed, develop. 

The grains of wheat are oblong with a deep groove on one 
side and a brush of short hairs at the tip. Variation in size, 
shape, color, and hard- 
ness is found in different 
varieties. The endo- 
sperm makes up about 
85 per cent of the kernel 
and most of this enters 
into flour. The outside 
covering of the kernel 
consists of three layers 
which make up the bran. 
This is about 5 per cent 
of the kernel and is 
used chiefly as live-stock 
feed. 

60. Kinds of wheat. 
— According to the time 
of year it grows, wheat 
is known either as winter 
or as spring. Seed of 
winter wheat is planted in the fall and harvested early the 
next summer and seed of spring wheat is planted in the spring 
and harvested the same year. 

Wheat may also be classified as beardless and bearded. 
Figs. 45 and 46 show heads of both classes. 

Botanically wheat may be divided into eight species and 
sub-species, known as einkorn, emmer, spelt, poulard, durum, 
polish, common, and club. These may be grouped as fol- 
lows : 



■ 




■ 


H 




Iv 


Ki^ 




Ws«'^ 


m ^ .tB^ vS 


^^■v ■/ 




■ *•' i 




■ ^HL ' ^^1 


W1'< 








tTMM 


m^'% 


K^ '*' 1 


h^'/ 


^K"^ vM 


^yM^^^m 


H 




M 


W%^ 




^F v^i)«fl 


^K- ^^ M^ 


ll 


H^ll 


isi 


B 




1 




Hi 



Fig. 45. — Heads of beardless winter wheat. 
1, Fultz ; 2, Leap prolific ; 3, purple straw ; 
4, Poole; 5, mealy; 6, Dawson golden chaff. 



134 



Effective Farming 



Spelt group. — Einkorn, emmer, spelt. Grain inclosed in 
glumes, a portion of which adheres to grains after threshing. 
Grains make poor flom*. Not extensively cultivated. Ein- 
korn is thought to be one of the first of the cultivated types. 
It is not grown in America. Emmer is grown rather exten- 
sively in the northern part of the Great Plains region. It is 
used largely as a stock food. Spelt is not grown in the United 

States. (See Fig. 47.) 

Durum wheat group. 
— Poulard, durum, and 
polish wheats. Grains 
free when threshed. 
Used principally in the 
manufacture of maca- 
roni and other paste 
foods. Adapted espe- 
cially to dry climates. 
Durum is the principal 
wheat of this group. 
Introduced into the 
United States by the 
Department of Agricul- 
ture and now grown ex- 
tensively in the Great 
Plains region. 

Bread wheat group. 
— Common and club wheat. Grains free when threshed. 
Common wheat, the kind most extensively grown, is used 
principally for making flour. Figures 45 and 46 show common 
wheats. Club wheat has a short compact head and is espe- 
cially well adapted to conditions in the Pacific Coast region, 
where it is grown extensively. Like common wheat, it is used 
for making flour. The bread wheats are grouped commercially 
according to color, hardness, and time of growth, as soft wheat, 
soft red, medium red, hard winter, and hard spring wheats. 




Fig. 46. — Heads of bearded winter wheat. 
1, Mediterranean; 2, Virginia; 3, winter 
fife ; 4, early Genesee giant. 



Small Grains 



135 



As a general rule, the soft wheats are light and the hard 
wheats are dark in color. 

61. Uses of wheat. — By far the largest part of the wheat 
grown in the world is used for the manufacture of flour, which 
is made into bread and paste foods, like macaroni. Certain 
prepared breakfast foods are made from wheat and a small 
quantity is fed to live-stock, but usually this latter is of poor 




Fig. 47. — Heads of German emmer, spelt, and einkorn. 1, black winter emmer ; 
2, white beardless spelt ; 3, black winter emmer ; 4, black bearded spelt ; 
5, double einkorn ; 6, spring emmer. 

quality and not suitable for flour. In the milUng of flour, 
many by-products result that are employed chiefly as live- 
stock feeds. The straw is used as roughage feed and bedding 
for live-stock. 

62. Soils for wheat. — Wheat has been grown successfully 
on most kinds of soil. It is important to have the soil in good 
tilth. In the case of heavy soils, more work is necessary to 
bring them into good condition than with loamy soils, but if 
heavy soils are well tilled they can be made to grow good crops 
of wheat. Sandy soils for this crop must be well supplied with 



136 



Effective Farming 



liumuy. The organic matter in the soil must be in a more 
advanced stage of decay than for corn. In many rotations 
wheat follows corn, which in turn has followed sod that has 
been manured. In these rotations the manure and sod are 
well decayed by the time the wheat is planted. Commercial 
fertilizer is often used profitably for wheat, especially in the 
older farming regions ; the plants seem to respond readily 
to the available food in the fertilizer. 




Fig. 48. — Grain-drill. 

63. Seeding of wheat. — Winter wheat should be sown early 
enough in the fall to provide for a good root development be- 
fore freezing occurs. The general rule in northern sections is 
to plant six or eight weeks before the freezing weather of winter 
usually begins. Where the Hessian fly is prevalent, especially 
in the South, the seeding is- often delayed until after the first 
killing frost. (See paragraph 66.) Spring planting is best 
done as early as the conditions of soil and weather will war- 
rant, because the plants make their most satisfactory growth 
in the cool weather. 

Rate of seeding. — The rate of seeding varies somewhat with 



Small Grains 



137 



the type of soil, more seed 
being required on heavy 
soils than on light ones. 
This is because the plants 
tend to tiller more freely 
on light soils and thus 
make more stalks. The 
average seeding is six pecks 
to the acre, but often eight 
pecks are used. In the 
dry-farming sections of the 
West, only three to four 
pecks are recommended, 
as the soil in these parts 
is warm and loose and the 
plants tiller freely ; thin 
sowing also gives large 
plants that stand the dry 
climate better than smaller 
ones. 

Methods of seeding. — 
Wheat is often sown broad- 
cast, but better results are 
obtained by planting with 
drills. A more even stand 
can thus be secured, as 
the seeds are all covered 
to about the same depth. 
Another advantage is that 
they are planted in shallow 
furrows and are not so 
likely to be heaved out 
of the ground by frost. 
With the drill, fertilizer 
and grass seed can be sown 




138 



Effective Farming 




Small Grains 



139 



at the time of wheat planting. Figure 48 shows a common type 
of grain-drill. (See paragraph 226.) 

Depth of planting. — Deep planting is not advised for wheat ; 
from one to two inches is enough. As explained previously, 
the plants put out permanent roots near the surface no matter 
how deep the seed is planted. In soils of poor tilth, however, 




Fig. 51. — Self-rake reaper. 



somewhat deeper seeding is necessary than in well prepared 
soils, because in the former the moisture will be insufficient 
in the surface layer to germinate the seed. 

64. Harvesting of wheat. — In most sections wheat is cut 
with binders (Fig. 49). These implements cut the mature 
plants, bind them into bundles, and deposit the bundles in 
piles on the ground. After the grain has been cut men follow 
through the fields and place the bundles in shocks (Fig. 50). 
In hilly regions an implement known as the self-rake reaper 
(Fig. 51) is often employed for cutting wheat. Reapers cut 



140 Effective Farming 

the grain and deposit it in piles, but do not bind it in bundles. 
It is afterwards bound by hand. Before binders were per- 
fected, reapers were much used in all sections, but in recent 
years they have not often been employed, except when 
there is danger of binders tipping over because of the hilly 
ground. 

In the West where the grain is allowed to become fairly 
ripe before it is cut and where large areas are planted to wheat, 
grain-headers are used extensively for cutting wheat. These 
machines remove the heads only, leaving the straw standing 
in the field. Combined harvesters and threshers are also used 
in some parts of the West. They cut the heads and convey 
them to a thresher that is attached to the machine. The ripe 
conditions of the grain and the dry climate make the cutting 
and threshing possible at one time. 

On small areas or on very hilly ground, grain-cradles are 
sometimes used for cutting wheat. A cradle is similar to a 
scythe, but in addition to the blade it is provided with long 
wooden fingers that carry the grain and deposit it in swaths. 
The grain is bound into bundles by hand. Before the advent 
of harvesting machines, cradles were used extensively for all 
small grains. 

Wheat, except that cut by the combined harvester and 
thresher, is usually threshed by machines that are operated 
by horse power, steam, or gas engines. The bundles or heads 
of grain are run through the machine which removes the grain 
from the straw and chaff. The grain comes out of one opening 
and is measured automatically. The straw and chaff come 
out of another opening ; the straw is usually stacked and saved 
for stock feed or bedding. (See paragraph 229.) A typical 
threshing scene is pictured in Fig. 52. 

In some sections the grain is threshed direct from the shocks ; 
in others it is stacked or placed in a mow and threshed later. 
If the weather is dry and the grain can be threshed soon, 
threshing from the shock secures the grain in good condition. 



Small Grains 



141 




142 Effective Farming 

However, if the grain becomes wet in the shock, the yield of 
good produce will be lessened. The grain must go through a 
sweat, which may take place in the shock, stack, or mow, or in 
the bin after the grain is threshed. The sweating causes heat 
and if the heat becomes too intense the grain will char, or 
blacken, thus destroying its quality. If the grain is placed 
in stack or mow when it is wet or if many green weeds are 
bound with it, excessive heating may occur. 

Threshed grain may be stored in any dry bin. If the 
grain in bins becomes very hot, due to sweating, it should 
be spread out to prevent charring. In the West, on account 
of the dry climate, grain may be safely stored in sacks in the 
field. 

65. Weeds of wheat fields. — On account of the seeds get- 
ting into the threshed grain and later into the flour, weeds in 
wheat fields are especially undesirable. Among the trouble- 
some weeds are chess, or cheat, darnel, cockle, wild garlic, 
pigeon- weed, and wild mustard. Chess and darnel seed can be 
removed from seed wheat by means of a fanning-mill. Cockle 
seed are about the same size and weight as wheat grains and 
for this reason are not readily separated by a fanning mill. 
About the only way to combat this weed is to pass through the 
field and pull up the plants when they are in blossom. The 
flowers are pink, making the plants easily distinguishable. 
Wild garlic and pigeon-weed are combated by planting infested 
areas in some other crop for a few seasons. Wild mustard 
seed is often found in seed wheat and, of course, such seed should 
not be planted. When plants are found in the field they should 
be pulled up; they can be distinguished by their yellow, 
four-petaled blossoms. Spraying the fields with a solution of 
iron sulfate has in some instances been found effective in com- 
bating mustard. The solution kills the mustard plants, but 
not the wheat. The formula used is eighty pounds of iron 
sulfate to forty gallons of water. This is spread at the rate of 
fifty gallons to the acre. 



Small Grains 143 

66. Insects of wheat fields. — The Hessian fly and chinch- 
bug are the most injurious insect pests to the wheat. 

The Hessian fly is a blackish insect about one-tenth inch in 
length. The larvae eat the stems of young wheat plants, caus- 
ing them to tumble over. The methods of controlling this 
pest are summarized by F. M. Webster in Farmers' Bulletin 
641: 

" In the fall- wheat-growing sections sow the best of seed 
in thoroughly prepared, fertile soil after the major portion of 
the fall brood has made its appearance and passed out of 
existence, and, if possible, sow on ground not devoted to wheat 
the preceding year. 

" In the spring-wheat section late seeding will not apply. It 
seems likely, on the contrary, that the earlier it is sown in 
spring the less it will suffer from the Hessian fly. But good 
seed and a well-prepared, fertile soil are as essential there as 
elsewhere." 

The chinch-bug hibernates during the winter in grass or 
under piles of weeds, trash, and rubbish and in the spring the 
females fly to wheat fields to lay eggs on the base of the plants. 
These eggs hatch in about twenty days and the larvae feed on 
the wheat. They live on the wheat until it is harvested, when 
they migrate to corn or oats. The adults have wings, but 
they travel on foot from the wheat fields. This fact makes it 
possible to use barriers, as explained elsewhere, in protecting 
the corn or the oat fields. The insects that reach these fields 
lay eggs there and a second brood hatches. The adults of 
this brood fly to grass land and rubbish piles and remain there 
during the winter. The control of the pest in wheat fields is 
accomplished by burning rubbish piles early in the spring be- 
fore the adults lay their eggs. 

67. Fungous diseases of wheat. — Smuts, rusts, and scab 
are fungous diseases that attack wheat. 

Smut. — Two kinds, loose smut and stinking smut, are de- 
structive to wheat (Figs. 53 and 54). Loose smut destroys 



144 



Effective Farming 




Fig. 53. — Loose smut of wheat. Comparison of sound head and smutted heads 
at four stages of development. 



Small Grains 



145 



both grains and glumes and at harvest time only the naked 
stem of the plant remains, the spores having been scattered 
about the field. Figure 53 shows this condition very plainly. 
The spores mature when the grain is in blossom. They are 
scattered about the 
field and if they 
lodge on a blossom- 
ing head of wheat 
they germinate and 
penetrate to the 
inside of the grain. 
Stinking smut de- 
stroys only the 
kernel, the glumes 
still remaining 
around the spores. 
The outside of 
smutted grain is 
intact, but the in- 
side, instead of a 
wheat grain, is a 
mass of spores. The 
smut balls often 
found in threshed 
grain are masses of 
stinking smut, not 
loose smut. The 
smut balls are shown 
in Fig. 54. When the grain is threshed, the spores are scat- 
tered. They adhere to the outside of the grain of wheat, es- 
pecially in the crease or among the tuft of hairs at the upper 
end. 

The fact that the spores of loose smut are on the inside of 
the grain and those of stinking smut are on the outside makes 
the treatment for the two diseases different. It has been found 




Fig. 54. — Stinking smut of wheat. Comparison of 
sound head and sound kernels with smutted head 
and smut balls. 



146 Effective Farming 

that the spores of loose smut are killed by a temperature of 
133° F., which is four or five degrees lower than will destroy the 
germ of the wheat. To treat the seed place the grain in a 
sack and soak it, sack and all, in cold water for six hours to 
soften it. Then have ready a tub of water at 133° F. and 
place the sack in the water, leaving it there for five minutes. 
Remove the sack, empty the grain, and spread out to dry. 
Some of the germs of wheat may be injured by the high tem- 
perature and to counteract this loss a little more seed should 
be sown. 

What is known as the formalin treatment is used to combat 
the stinking smut of wheat. The formalin, which should be of 
40 per cent strength, can be purchased at a drug store. Dis- 
solve at the rate of one pound, or one pint, to fifty gallons 
of water and use one gallon of the solution for each bushel of 
wheat. Spread the wheat in a long pile on a tight, smooth 
floor and sprinkle the solution over the pile. It is a good plan 
to have one person shovel the pile over while another uses the 
sprinkling can. After the pile is wet cover it with bags or 
blankets to keep the fumes of the formalin in the wheat and 
allow it to remain covered several hours. Next spread the 
grain out to dry and when dry be careful to place it in clean 
bags. Turn the bags inside out and sprinkle some of the 
formalin solution on them to kill any spores that may be in 
the bags. When ready to plant the grain, sprinkle the seeder- 
box with the formalin solution to kill any germs that may be 
there. 

Rusts are responsible for considerable damage to wheat, 
especially in humid climates. They are more prevalent if the 
weather is warm and moist than if it is dry. Two kinds are 
destructive to wheat — the leaf rust and the stem rust. These 
diseases may be known by the rusty brown or blackish spores 
that attack the plants during growth. No remedy is available, 
but some varieties of wheat are more rust-resistant than 
others ; consequently, as a preventive measure, it is well to 



Small Grains 147 

plant a rust-resistant variety. The United States Department 
of Agriculture or the experiment station of each state can 
give advice as to varieties for each particular region. 

Wheat scab attacks the head of the grain. It is known by a 
reddish spot found at the base of the diseased glumes. Scab 
does not usually cause great loss, although at times much 
shriveled grain results from the disease. There is no remedy, 
but, of course, seed from an infested field should not be planted. 

OATS 

68. Distribution, yields, and characteristics of oats. — The 
principal oat-producing countries in order of production are : 
United States, Russia, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, and 
the United Kingdom. In the United States the Central and 
North Central States are the largest producers. Iowa and 
Illinois grow about a fourth of the oats of the country. Other 
states having large oat-producing areas are Wisconsin, Minne- 
sota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, 
Nebraska, Kansas, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Missouri. Oats 
are grown in many of the Southern States and, although the 
acreage is not large, it is rapidly increasing. The average 
yield of oats in the different countries varies considerably. 
From 1900 to 1909 the yields in bushels were as follows : 
Germany 50.7 ; United Kingdom 44.3 ; France 31.6; Austria- 
Hungary 30.2; United States 29.3; Russia 20. The yield 
in the United States is very low. With more attention given 
to the farming of oats, the average yield in this country could 
easily be doubled. 

The plant is an annual with jointed stem, blade-like leaves, 
and a fibrous root system. The height of stem varies from 
two to five feet, averaging about three feet. The leaves are 
somewhat broader than those of wheat. The grain-bearing 
portion is a panicle which consists of a central stem, along 
which are nodes from which spring single branches that bear 
the spikelets (Fig. 55). 



148 



Effective Farming 



69. Kinds of oats. — Oats are classified as spreading and 
side oats. In the former the branches bearing the spikelets 
are distributed on all sides of the stem ; in the latter the branches 
are all on one side (Fig. 55). Oats are grouped as winter and 

as spring, depend- 
ing on the time of 
year grown. They 
are also classified 
as early and as late 
varieties, according 
to the length of time 
they require for de- 
velopment, not ac- 
cording to the time 
they are planted. 
The usual variation 
of the growing sea- 
son ranges from 90 
to 120 days. As to 
color, oats are classi- 
fied as white, black, 
red, yellow, and 
gray. 

70. Uses of oats. 
— The grain is par- 
ticularly useful for 
horses and is also 
fed to some extent 
to sheep, cows, and 




Spreading oats and side oats. 



hogs. The straw makes good roughage and bedding for live-stock. 
The plants are sometimes cut for hay and when grown with field 
peas are good for soiling purposes. Oats make a satisfactory 
temporary pasture. In the form of rolled oats, the grain is used 
extensively for human food. The best grades only are desirable 
for this purpose and such grades bring a good price on the market. 



Small Grains 149 

71. Climate and soils for oats. — A cool, moist climate is 
most desirable for oats. In the United States they make their 
best yields in the northern part of the country. However, 
they are grown successfully in the South, although the yield 
and bushel weight is somewhat less than in the North. Only 
rust-proof varieties should be planted in the South. 

Loam and clay soils that are not too heavy usually produce 
better crops than sandy loams, because of their greater water- 
holding capacity, but sandy soils containing abundant plant- 
food and having fairly stiff subsoils can be made to produce 
good oats. Heavy soils are too cold for oats and do not pro- 
duce good crops. Because of their tendency to lodge, oats 
should not be grown on exceedingly rich soil. 

72. Preparing the ground for oats. — Less preparation is 
given to the ground for oats than for any of the other cereals. 
In the corn-belt states this is due to the desire of the farmers 
to get the crops planted early. Oats, being hardy, seem to 
stand this treatment better than other cereals. Often the 
ground receives no preparation before the oats are planted. 
Some farmers sow the oats broadcast and cover them by means 
of a disk. Others use a disk drill to plant the seeds. Still 
others go over the ground with a disk or harrow and level it 
before planting the grain. At times the land is plowed and 
harrowed before the seed is sown. The best method to follow 
varies with conditions. If the ground is very weedy, plowing 
or disking may be profitable ; in other cases the difference in 
yield may not pay for the extra cost of preparation. Expe- 
rience in a particular region is the best guide, and often it will 
pay farmers to experiment on their own fields to find out which 
method seems to give the greatest net profits. In the South 
good preparation of the seed-bed is profitable ; plowing and 
disking the land to make the soil of good tilth before the seed- 
ing has given good results. 

73. Planting the seed. — Oats are often broadcasted and 
covered by means of a disk or a spike-tooth harrow, but better 



150 Effective Farming 

results are obtained by seeding them with a grain drill, as there 
is likely to be a more uniform stand and a saving of seed. 

What is known as the open-furrow method of planting oats 
is used in some sections of the South to prevent winter-killing 
of the plants. One practice consists in sowing the seeds in 
the bottom of furrows eighteen to twenty-four inches apart 
made by a single shovel plow. A one-horse planter is used 
to drop the seed, which then grow at the bottom of the furrow 
where they are protected from the heaving of the ground which 
so often occurs in the South, especially on wet soils. Another 
practice is to use a special drill made for sowing between rows 
of standing crops. These implements plant three furrows at 
a time and are just wide enough to go between the cotton 
rows. The seed is planted in the standing cotton in the autumn. 

The average acre-rate of seeding for oats is eight or nine 
pecks, but often as low as six pecks or as high as ten or twelve 
pecks are sown. Varieties with large kernels should be sown 
more thickly than those with small kernels. Oats tiller freely 
and for this reason a thin seeding often gives good results. 

74. Harvesting of oats. — Usually oats are cut with a grain- 
binder. If the grain is ripe or in the hard-dough stage, the 
bundles may be placed in round shocks. These should be 
capped to protect the grain from the weather. If the grain is 
green or many weeds are bound into the bundles, they should 
be placed in long shocks so that air and sunshine can penetrate. 
The grain should be dry when threshed ; it threshes better 
and there is less danger of heating and molding. 

75. Enemies of oats. — The weeds that are the most trouble- 
some in the oat fields are wild mustard and chess. The method 
of combating these in oats is the same as in wheat. The 
principal insect enemies of oats are chinch-bugs and army- 
worms. The method of control of these pests has been dis- 
cussed elsewhere. Rust attacks oats and in some sections 
does considerable damage in warm seasons. Rust-proof vari- 
eties of oats should be used in regions where rust is likely to 



Small Grains 151 

be prevalent. Two smuts attack oats, loose smut and covered 
smut. In the former the panicles of the plant become masses 
of black spores. The covered smut does not attack the glumes, 
only the oat grains. These smuts are controlled by the formalin 
treatment described for stinking smut of wheat. 

RYE 

76. Distribution and characteristics of rye. — Europe is the 
principal rye-producing country, supplying about nine-tenths 
of all the rye grown in the world. North America is second, 
growing about one thirty-eighth as much as Europe. Asia 
is third and Australasia fourth, each with small quantities 
when compared with Europe. In Germany and Russia much 
more rye is produced than wheat. The United States produces 
less than 3 per cent of the rye crop of the world. The heaviest 
rye-producing states are Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, 
and New York. The bulk of the production is in the eastern 
half of the country. 

Rye resembles wheat in its botanical characters, is used for 
similar purposes, and is cultivated in much the same manner. 
It grows somewhat taller, the stems often reaching a height 
of six or seven feet with the spike six or seven inches long. 
Both winter and spring varieties are grown. 

77. Uses of rye. — The principal use of rye is in the making 
of flour for 'bread. Much more rye bread is consumed in 
Europe than in America. Rye is also used in the making of 
whisky and the grain is a valuable stock feed. Green rye 
is used as a soiling crop and as pasture. Winter rye is one 
of the earliest green forage crops to be ready in the spring. 
If it is not too ripe when cut, rye makes fairly satisfactory 
hay. The straw, however, is not of much use as roughage 
for live-stock. It makes excellent bedding and is used largely 
in the manufacture of hats, paper, baskets, matting, pad- 
ding of horse collars, and as packing material for glass- 
ware. As a green-manure crop, rye is of considerable im- 



152 Effective Farming 

portance, because it will grow on poor soils and make abundant 
foliage. 

78. Climate and soils for rye. — Rye has a wide climatic 
range ; it grows well in both the northern and southern parts 
of the United States and it can be grown farther north than 
wheat. It will grow on all types of soils, if they are well drained, 
but does best on light loams or sandy soils. It grows better on 
poor ground than other cereals, and for this reason is often 
selected for the poorest fields of the farm. 

79. Planting the seed. — The rate of seeding varies with 
conditions ; when used for grain the usual acre-rate is about 
six pecks, and when used as a green-manure or soiling crop, 
about two bushels. As to the time of seeding, rye has a wide 
adaptation, varying in different sections and even in the same 
region. Usually it is seeded earlier than wheat, but it may be 
sown much later. 

80. Harvesting of rye. — The implements for harvesting 
rye are the same as for the other small grains. The time of 
harvesting varies with the use to be made of the crop. When 
grown for grain, it is allowed to become fairly ripe. When the 
straw is to be sold for manufacturing purposes, the plants are 
cut very green. Properly cured it is tough and of a desirable 
color. The highest price on the market is secured if the stalks 
in the bundles are kept straight ; in order to remove the grain 
and still have the stalks straight, special rye threshers are 
necessary. In many of these the head of the bundle is pushed 
into the machine and the bundle held until the grain has been 
removed, after which it is withdrawn and thrown to one side. 

81. Enemies of rye. — Rye is not seriously troubled by 
insects and fungous pests. All the insects that attack wheat 
also attack rye, but they do less damage. Rusts and smuts 
do not seriously injure rye, but ergot is a fungous disease that 
often becomes troublesome. It attacks the grains and causes 
them to increase to three or four times their normal size and 
turn black. Live-stock, when fed on rye affected by ergot, 



Small Grains 153 

are often made sick. The use of seed free from ergot is a pre- 
ventive measure ; it is also advisable to plant some crops 
other than rye for at least three years on land that has grown 
rye badly affected by ergot. 

BARLEY 

82. Distribution and characteristics of barley. — The chief 
barley-producing countries are Russia, United States, Ger- 
many, Austria-Hungary, and Japan. In the United States 
about three-fourths of the crop is produced in California, 
Minnesota, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and North Dakota. 

Barley is similar to wheat in appearance. It has, however, 
shorter stalks, broader leaves, and a different structure of the 
spike. The spikelets are inclosed in the hulls, and these, except 
in a variety known as hull-less, cling to the grain after it is 
threshed. 

Two types of barley are common — the six-rowed and the 
two-rowed. In the six-rowed, there are six spikelets, each 
producing a kernel, at every joint along the stem, thus making 
six rows of grains up and down the head. In the two-rowed, 
three spikelets are produced at each joint as in the six-rowed 
type, but only one of the three produces a kernel. Thus there 
are two rows of grains along the head. Barleys are also clas- 
sified as bearded and beardless and as winter and spring vari- 
eties. 

83. Uses of barley. — About half of the barley grown in the 
United States is used for making malt, a product employed in 
the manufacture of beer and other malt liquors. Barley 
makes a desirable feed for live-stock. In the Pacific Coast 
States it is used largely for horse feed ; in the Central States 
it is fed extensively to hogs, cattle, and sheep. When cut 
before the beards become too thick, barley makes a very good 
hay, and it is also frequently used as pasture for sheep and 
swine. The grain is used as human food in the form of pearl 
barley; barley meal, and barley flour. 



154 Effective Farming 

84. Climate and soils for barley. — Although it can be grown 
successfully in rather moist regions, a warm, dry climate is 
best for barley. The crop can be produced successfully, 
however, in nearly all parts of the United States and in many 
sections of Canada. 

Soils for barle}^ must be well drained. Fertile loams produce 
the crop profitably, but on poor soils the yield of grain is low 
and the straw is short. In some regions in which alkali is 
prevalent, barley seems to do better than corn, oats, or wheat. 

85. Planting the seed. — Somewhat better tilth of soil is 
necessary for barley than for oats. When it is to be planted 
in the fall, it is usually advisable to plow the land before seed- 
ing. However, when the crop is to follow corn or potatoes a 
good seed-bed is often made by disking and harrowing the 
land instead of plowing it. When barley is to be seeded in the 
spring, it is often a good plan to plow the land in the fall and 
work it with a harrow early in the spring. If the plowing is 
delayed until the spring, it should be done early and a mellow 
seed-bed made before planting the seed. 

Barley may be either drilled or broadcasted, but drilling is 
preferable, as higher yields result and, in the case of winter 
barley, there is less likelihood of winter-killing. About six 
or eight pecks is the usual acre-rate of seeding when drilled and 
about ten pecks when broadcasted. In dry sections of the 
West a lower rate, from three to four pecks, gives better results. 
Spring-seeded barley is usually planted a little later than oats. 
Winter barley in the North is usually planted in September or 
the first part of October. In the South the seed is sown any 
time between September 1 and December 1, depending on the 
locality. 

86. Harvesting of barley. — The grain should be in the hard- 
dough stage when cut. The straw and heads at this stage will 
be yellow. If cut too green the kernels will shrivel. The 
grain is cut in the same manner as described for the other 
cereals. Excessive weathering in the shock injures the ap- 



Small Grains 155 

pearance of barley and lessens its value in the market. To 
protect the bundles, the shocks should be made so that they are 
not easily blown over and a cap sheaf should be placed on the 
top of each. The grain should be threshed as soon as the 
bundles have dried in the shock and, if no threshing machine 
is at hand, it should be stacked rather than left in the shock 
too long. The stacking will protect it from the weather. 

87. Enemies of barley. — The Hessian fly and the chinch- 
bug are insects troublesome to barley, and they are controlled 
as described for wheat. Several rusts attack barley, but it 
has been found that early-maturing varieties are likely to 
mature before much damage is done by rust. Thus the prac- 
tical way to combat the rust is to use such varieties and plant 
the seed early. Both loose smut and covered smut attack 
barley; the former is combated by the hot-water treatment 
and the latter by the formalin treatment. 

RICE 

88. Distribution and characteristics of rice. — Asia is the 
chief producer of rice, for out of an average yearly production 
of 150,000,000,000 pounds, 135,000,000,000 are produced on that 
continent. The United States grows a comparatively small part 
of the rice of the world, the average yearly production being 
700,000,000 pounds. Rice-growing in the United States is con- 
fined largely to restricted areas in Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, 
California, South Carolina, and North Carolina. 

Like other cereals, rice is a member of the grass family and has 
shallow, fibrous roots, jointed stems, and blade-like leaves. The 
grain is held in a panicle that is less open than the panicle of oats ; 
the plants grow to an average height of four or five feet ; the 
hulls remain attached to the kernels after the grain is threshed ; 
and the kernel itself is white, hard, and vitreous. The grains 
are removed from the hulls by what is termed polishing. 

89. Uses of rice. — The principal use of rice is for human 
food. It is one of the oldest crops of the eastern nations and 



156 Effective Farming 

for many centuries has been their chief food. Rice pohsh, a 
by-product made in removing the hull, is a very valuable feed 
for live-stock. Rice bran is another by-product used for live- 
stock feed. It consists of the seed-coat of the grain and some 
of the hulls and polish. Rice hulls have little food value and 
are often used as packing material. 

90. Climate and soils for rice. — Moist climates and long, 
hot, growing seasons are best for rice. Most of the crop is 
grown on low-lying areas that can be quickly irrigated and 
quickly drained, although some varieties are grown on high 
ground without irrigation. 

91. Cultural methods. — Rice is sometimes broadcasted, 
but better results are gained by drilling, as the seeds are more 
uniformly covered and a better stand is likely to result. From 
one to two bushels of seed is the average quantity sown. In 
the United States the planting is done any time from the middle 
of April to the middle of May. 

Irrigation is an important factor in rice-growing. Water 
must be plentiful and conditions such that it can be supplied 
and removed at will. Thus areas with just enough slope to 
cause the water to drain away are desirable. In the South- 
west, unless the soil is very dry, the plants are allowed to 
reach a height of about eight inches, when the field is flooded 
to a depth of three to six inches. If the soil is very dry at 
planting time, it is irrigated enough to provide for the germi- 
nation of the seed. After the plants are about eight inches 
high, water is kept on the field until the rice reaches the dough 
stage. The water must not become stagnant during the grow- 
ing season, and this is prevented by maintaining a continuous 
flow, letting water into the field at a high place and removing 
at a low place. When the plants have reached the dough 
stage, the irrigating is stopped and the land allowed to dry 
enough to bear the weight of the farming implements. The 
grain is then cut and shocked. Later it is threshed from the 
shock and the rough rice taken to the mills where it is polished. 



Small Grains 157 

In the Southeast the water is turned into the field as soon 
as the seed has been sown and the soil is kept wet for four to 
six days. The water is then removed. In a few days the 
area is again flooded and kept wet for about three weeks or a 
month, when the irrigation is stopped and the fields hoed. 
When the jointing of the plants begins, the fields are again 
hoed and flooded, the water being allowed to remain on the 
ground until about a week before the harvest. 

Upland strains of rice are grown without irrigation. The 
seed is planted in rows from two and one-half to three feet 
apart and the plants are given several cultivations and one or 
two hoeings during the season. 

BUCKWHEAT 

92. Distribution and characteristics of buckwheat. — Buck- 
wheat belongs to the dock family and, although not a cereal, 
has for many years been cultivated like them, and for this 
reason is generally described in connection with wheat, oats, 
and rye. The flowers are white, tinged with pink. The 
seeds are three-sided and resemble those of the dock. The 
plants start to bloom about four weeks after planting and 
continue blooming until killed by frost. Thus at harvest 
time the plants contain both flowers and mature seeds. 

New York and Pennsylvania produce about two-thirds of 
the buckwheat grown in the United States. The average 
production for the whole country is about 15,000,000 bushels ; 
of this. New York produces about 6,000,000 bushels and Penn- 
sylvania 4,000,000. Michigan, Maine, West Virginia, and 
Virginia are next in production, in the order named. 

The chief use of buckwheat is for flour for making griddle 
cakes. The grain is sometimes fed to live-stock, especially 
poultry. Buckwheat middlings and bran, by-products from 
the manufacture of buckwheat flour, are used as cattle feed. 
Buckwheat is often planted by bee-keepers, the flowers being a 
source of nectar for the bees. 



158 Effective Farming 

93. Cultural methods. — A crop of buckwheat will mature 
in about eight to ten weeks after planting. Being a short- 
season crop, it is often planted on ground that cannot be made 
ready for some other stand, or where other crops have been 
planted and failed. It will grow on many types of soil and will 
do fairly well on poor soil. For this reason, it is often grown 
on soil that will not produce other crops profitably. The type 
best suited to buckwheat, however, is a well drained, fairly 
moist sandy loam that is not excessively rich ; if the soil is 
too rich the grain will lodge badly. For the best results, the 
land should be plowed long enough before seeding to give the 
soil time to settle and the sods and other organic matter time 
to start to decay. The land should then be prepared as for 
cereal crops and a mellow seed-bed secured. 

The acre-rate of seeding varies from two to five pecks. The 
seed may be broadcasted or drilled ; drilling requires about a peck 
less seed to the acre and a more uniform stand is likely to result. 

The crop should be cut soon after the first seeds mature and 
before the first heavy frost. If the cutting is delayed, much 
grain is likely to be lost by shattering. The implements gen- 
erally used for cutting buckwheat are either the reaper or the 
binder with the bundle-tying part removed. On small areas 
much of the grain is cut with the cradle. The grain is allowed 
to -dry in the swath for a few days and is then bound loosely 
by hand in bundles that are set up in small shocks and allowed 
to cure. Either a cloudy day or the early morning hours is 
the best time to cut and shock buckwheat ; handling it while 
the grain is somewhat moist prevents excessive shattering. 
The crop is threshed by means of a regular threshing machine. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is winter wheat seeding often delayed until after the first 
frost? 

2. What are the advantages of seeding wheat with a grain-drill 
over broadcasting it ? 



Small Grains 159 

3. How are the following weeds combated in wheat fields : chess, 
darnel, cockle, wild garlic, pigeon-weed, wild mustard? 

4. Describe both the hot water and the formalin methods of treat- 
ing smuts of wheat. Which treatment is used for loose smut ? Which 
one for stinking smut ? 

5. Describe the grain-bearing portions of the cereals. 

6. What kind of oats should be planted in the South? Why? 

7. Why is rye cut green when the straw is to be sold for manu- 
facturing purposes? 

8. Explain the difference between two-rowed and six-rowed barley. 

9. Describe the method of irrigating the rice land in Louisiana. 
In South Carolina. 

10. What are some of the advantages of buckwheat as a crop? 
How is buckwheat harvested ? 

EXERCISES 

1. Bushel weight of grain. — Fill a peck measure level full of 
wheat and compute the weight of a bushel. Do the same with the 
other small grains. How do these weights compare with the pub- 
lished weights of these grains? The legal weights and measures are 
generally published in the U. S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook. 

2. Testing seeds of grain. — Sprout one hundred seeds of each of 
the small grains in seed testers and determine the percentage of germi- 
nation. Do this with several samples from different sources. Study 
the sprouted seeds and find the caulicle and the plumule. How do the 
seeds like wheat and rye that are free when threshed differ in sprouting 
from barley and oats? 

3. Smut of grains. — In a wheat or an oat field place a hoop or rec- 
tangular frame over a section of the growing grain, count the plants, 
and if any are smutted, determine the percentage. Secure wheat and 
oats from farmers and in the school laboratory practice the two 
methods of smut treatment with wheat and the formalin treatment 
with oats. 

4. Examination of grain heads. — Secure mature heads of all of the 
different kinds of grain grown in the vicinity and when dry mount them 
on cardboard by pasting narrow strips of paper across the stems. 
During the school year examine each kind of grain carefully and study 
the botanical characters as previously given. Make drawings of each 
of the small grains. 

5. Tillering of grain plants. — In a field of small grain study the till- 
ering of the plants. Notice that several plants grow from a seed. Com- 



160 Effective Farming 

pare the number of stalks on a plant growing far separated from other 
plants and one growing in a thickly planted field. Also, make com- 
parisons of plants growing in light and in heavy soils. How do you 
account for the differences? 



REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 660- 

670; 485-494; 559-563; 202-206; 559-563; 534-539; 217-221. 

The Macmillan Co. 
Livingston, George, Field Crop Production. The Macmillan Co. 
Montgomery, E. G., Productive Farm Crops. The Lippincott Co. 
Hunt, T. F., Cereals in America. Orange Judd Co. 
Farmers' Bulletin 139, Emmer: Grain for Semi-arid Regions. 
Farmers' Bulletin 466, Winter Emmer. 
Farmers' Bulletin 596, Culture of Winter Wheat in the Eastern United 

States. 
Farmers' Bulletin 616, Winter-wheat Varieties for the Eastern United 

States. 
Farmers' Bulletin 678, Groiving Hard Spring Wheat. 
Farmers' Bulletin 680, Varieties of Hard Spring Wheat. 
Farmers' Bulletin 534, Durum Wheat. 
Farmers' Bulletin 420, Oats : Distribution and Uses. 
Farmers' Bulletin 424, Oats : Growing the Crop. 
Farmers' Bulletin 436, Winter Oats for the South. 
Farmers' Bulletin 756, Culture of Rye in the Eastern Half of the United 

States. 
Special Circular U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Rye in the Cotton Belt. 
Farmers' Bulletin 443, Barley : Growing the Crop. 
Farmers' Bulletin 427, Barley Culture in the Southern States. 
Farmers' Bulletin 518, Winter Barley. 
Farmers' Bulletin 417, Rice Culture. 
Farmers' Bulletin 688, Culture of Rice in California. 
Farmers' Bulletin 673, Irrigation Practice in Rice Growing, 
Farmers' Bulletin 507, The Smuts of Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Corn. 
Farmers' Bulletin 799, Carbon Bisulphid as an Insecticide. 
Farmers' Bulletin 640, The Hessian Fly. 
Farmers' Bulletin 657, Chinch Bug. 

Farmers' Bulletin 786, Fall-sown Grains in Maryland and Virginia. 
Farmers' Bulletin 800, Grains for the Dry Lands of Central Oregon. 
Farmers' Bulletin 835, How to Detect Outbreaks of Insects and Save 

the Grain Crops. 



CHAPTER VIII 
GRASSES AND SORGHUMS 

Gi^asses 
Characteristics of grasses. 

Number of grasses cultivated for hay and pasture. 
Uses of grasses. 
Soils for grasses. 

Purchasing and planting grass seed. 
Harvesting grass crops for hay. 
Grasses for haj^ and pasture. 

Timothy. 

Kentucky blue-grass. 

Canada blue-grass. 

Redtop.. 

Orchard-grass. 

Rye-grasses. 

Meadow-fescue. 

Tall oat-grass. 

Brome-grass. 

Bermuda-grass. 

Millets. 

Sorghums 
Description of sorghums. 
Broom-corn. 

Groups. 

Cultural methods. 
Saccharine sorghums. 

Groups. 

Cultural methods. 
Non-saccharine sorghums. 

Groups. 

Cultural methods. 

Grass is the fundamental crop in North American husbandry. 
It provides the base on which the great hve-stock industry is 
developed. Grass holds and protects the land, and its extensive 
M 161 



162 Effective Farming 

root system contributes much to the structure and ameUoration 
of the soil. One hardly thinks of a farm without forage and 
grazing. Most of the hay and pasture crops are perennial 
grasses, but in California and other parts the annual grains, 
as oats, may be grown and cured for hay. Many parts of the 
country have good native pasture grasses. This is true of the 
western plains. The South has few native grasses of the haj^ 
and pasture type, but the introduced species supply the need. 
In the Northeast, timothy grass, an introduction from the Old 
World, is the most important single species. All the true 
cereal grains belong to the grass family. Sorghum yields 
much forage, as well as sirup and grain. The products 
of agriculture are of two great classes, the crops and the ani- 
mals ; horses, cattle, beef, swine, poultry, subsist largely on 
the grasses and the grass-family grains. 

GRASSES 

94. Characteristics of grasses. — The term '^ grass" is some- 
what misleading. Botanically it means a member of a par- 
ticular group of plants known as the grass family. In common 
usage it is often applied to any plant that is cut for hay, in- 
cluding legumes like clover and alfalfa, as well as certain sedge- 
like plants often found growing wild. Corn, wheat, oats, bar- 
ley, and rye are members of the grass family. As a rule they 
are grown for the grain and straw, but are often cut for hay. 
Some of the common characteristics of grasses are : (1) They 
have a fibrous root system ; a comparison of the roots of wheat 
and clover will show the numerous thread-like roots of the 
one and the long tap-root of the other. (2) The stem, or 
culm, has a smooth wall and may be hollow except at the nodes 
or may be filled with pith ; the culm of most varieties of wheat 
is hollow, that of corn is filled with pith. (3) The leaves are 
parallel-veined, differing from the netted- veined leaves of 
many plants. (4) The leaves are made up of three parts, the 
sheath, blade, and ligule ; the sheath starts from a node and 



Grasses and Sorghums 163 

envelops part of the internode ; the blade continues from the 
sheath and is the most apparent part of the leaf; the ligule 
is at the upper part of the sheath where it joins the blade and 
it varies in size considerably in the different species. (5) The 
blossoms are formed in a head which varies materially in 
different species as, for example, the head of wheat and oats> 
or of corn and timothy. 

95. Number of grasses cultivated for hay and pasture. — 
According to Montgomery some fourteen hundred species of 
grass are found in the United States and about five thousand 
in the world. Of this large number, however, only a few are 
cultivated extensively in the United States for hay and pas- 
ture and a few others are of local importance in certain areas. 
There are reasons why so few of the many grasses are planted. 
A grass must produce seed that can be easily and cheaply har- 
vested and it must be productive and persistent. Most of 
the natural wild grasses fail in one or more of these respects. 
The grasses commonly cultivated in America are described on 
subsequent pages. 

96. Uses of grasses. — The grasses that are planted prin- 
cipally for hay and pasture are of great economic value to 
farmers. In some sections hay is the chief crop. Hay cured 
properly is a palatable feed for live-stock and it will keep for a 
long time, thus extending the period during which the grass can 
be fed. The use of grass as pasture is important. In some 
sections, especially where land is cheap or of such nature that 
it is not easily tilled, the cheapest way to keep cattle, sheep, 
and horses during the summer is to let them run on pasture. 

Grasses, also, are used extensively for lawns. The fine leaves 
and creeping habits of some varieties make them especially 
useful for this purpose. Kentucky blue-grass, where it will 
grow, is one of the best grasses for lawns. Bermuda-grass is 
much used for lawns in the South. 

97. Soils for grasses. — The type of soil considered to be 
best for grass is a fertile clay loam. The fibrous root system 



164 Effective Farming 

seems better able to derive plant-food from finely divided 
than from coarse soil. Soils for grasses should be well drained 
for best results, but some varieties of grass can be made to 
grow on soil that is too wet for other crops and some kinds 
will grow on dry soils. Thus it is seen that grasses have a 
rather wide adaptability as to soil. 

The land to be seeded to grass should be well prepared. 
Usually the crop is harvested for several years and for this 
reason, especially, it pays to give the land good preparation 
before seeding it. The plowing should be deep and the sur- 
face preparation thorough. 

98. Purchasing and planting grass seed. — Much grass seed 
of poor quality is on the market, but usually good seed can 
be obtained from a reliable dealer by paying a reasonable 
price. It does not pay to plant the inferior quality. Weed 
seeds, as a rule, are less common in grass seeds than they are 
in clover and alfalfa seed, since they can be removed easily 
from the former by means of fanning mills. Nevertheless 
much of the seed offered for sale contains too high a percentage 
of weed seeds. Often an examination with a hand lens will 
reveal their presence. Such a product should, of course, be 
avoided. 

When grass is to be grown alone in a field the seed is usually 
broadcasted either by hand or by means of broadcast seeders, 
of which there are many good types on the market. When 
grass and a grain are to grow together the seeds of both are 
usually planted at one operation with a grain drill. 

99. Harvesting grass crops for hay. — To secure the best 
results, grass for hay must be harvested at the proper stage 
of growth. If allowed to become too ripe, the hay is woody 
and not relished by live-stock ; if too green, the grass will be 
difficult to cure and the yield of hay will be small. 

Modern hay-making machinery has been highly developed 
and much of the labor is carried on by horse or mechanical 
power. The grass is cut with a mower (Fig. 56) and allowed 



Grasses and Sorghums 



165 




166 



Effective Farming 



to lie in the swath for a time to cure ; if the sun is shining a 
few hours will generally be enough to cure the hay sufficiently. 
In case the hay becomes wet or a very heavy crop has been 
cut, the use of a hay-tedder may be necessary. This implement 




ju ached in cocks. 



is provided with long, forked arms that turn, or kick the hay 
over, as the implement is drawn across the field. After the 
hay has cured, it is raked into windrows, usually with a hay 
rake, of which there are several types on the market. From 
the windrows it is either placed in cocks (Fig. 57) or hauled 









^^1 


\ ^ 1 


ms- 


/' .^ „ *» . 




dJHHJ 


gHk 1 


¥ 




*Vl 


^^^^^^^1 


^^^^^R_ 


^i 




1 


IB 





Fig. 58. — Loading hay by hand. 



Grasses and Sorghums 



167 




Fig. 59. — Loading hay with a hay loader. 

direct to the stack, barn, or shed. For transporting the hay, 
a rack placed on the running gear of a wagon is usually em- 
ployed. These racks may be loaded by hand as shown in Fig. 
58, or with a hay-loader, as shown in Fig. 59. A sweep-rake 
(Fig. 60) is sometimes used to convey the hay from the wind- 




FiG. 6U. — A sweep -r:ike bringing the hay to the stacker. 



168 



Effective Farming 



row, cock, or swath and transport it to the stacker (Fig. 61), 
a device used to build the stack. Several types of stackers are 
on the market and the use of any of them means labor saved. 
If the hay is to be placed in a mow or shed, hay forks, hay 







1 


igj 


1 








-jr.' '' M 


^^ 


fe^ 


^ 


# 






ft 


4 


K>1 


•1 


W^'- 


S^^BI 


tmk^^ . 




1 




J!i-^jF=^ef:S 



Fig. 61. — Stacking hay. 



slings, or carriers are often employed to do away with the 
hand labor of pitching the hay. 

100. Grasses for hay and pasture. — The grasses that are 
extensively cultivated for hay and pasture are timothy, Ken- 
tucky blue-grass, rye-grasses, redtop, and orchard-grass. 
Those of secondary importance are meadow-fescue, tall oat- 
grass, Bermuda-grass, and Canada blue-grass. All of these 
are briefly described on the next few pages. 

Timothy. — Considerably more than half the area devoted 
to grass in the United States is planted to timothy or some 
mixture containing timothy. Often it is planted with red 



Grasses and Sorghums 



169 



clover. The chief timothy-producing region Ues north of the 
Ohio River and east of the Missouri River. The grass is also 
grown in the northern part of the Pacific Coast States. It is 
not well adapted to the South, being easily killed in summer, 
In money value timothy leads all other grasses 
grown for hay. 

Timothy is named from Timothy Hanson of 
Maryland who, it is said, introduced the grass 
from England about 1720. It is recorded that 
a man by the name of John Herd was culti- 
vating the grass in New Hampshire about 1747 
and in New England and some other sections 
it was long known as Herd's grass. The com- 
mon name now in most sec- 
tions is timothy, although in 
parts of New England the 
name Herd's grass still per- 
sists. This is unfortunate, 
because this name is used in 
some sections for redtop. 

Timothy (Fig. 62) is an erect- 
growing plant with an average 
height of two to four feet. The head is a spike 
from three to four inches long. The leaves are 
not abundant and usually grow near the base 
of the plant. New stems are produced by 
tillering and also by means of short stolons ; 
often a single plant in a few years will produce 
a clump a foot or so in diameter. Two or 
three crops of timothy are generally produced 
before the ground is broken up and under very 
favorable conditions fields have been kept in timothy for eight 
to ten years or even longer. 

Kentucky blue-grass. — The most used pasture and lawn 
grass is Kentucky blue-grass, or June-grass as it is sometimes 





Fig. 62.- 
Timothy. 



Fig. 63. — Ken- 
tucky blue-grass. 



170 



Effective Farming 



called (Fig. 63). It is cultivated chiefly in the timothy region 
and in the states just south of this section. In the South it is 
usually killed in hot weather, but will endure in shady places. 
It is not a good hay plant, but as a pasture 
and lawn grass it has no equal. It makes 
a dense, firm sod that improves with age 
and it stands pasturing well. 

Canada blue-grass. — Characteristic dif- 
ferences between Canada blue-grass (Fig. 
64) and Kentucky blue-grass are that the 
former has somewhat flatter stems, a less 
open head, and a bend in the stem. It 
has been found particularly well suited to 
conditions in the southern part of Canada 
and the northeast- 
ern part of the 
United States. On 
the whole it is less 
productive than 
Kentucky blue- 
grass, but on some 
soils, especially 
those that are acid or sandy, it will 
make a better growth. It makes a good 
pasture, but does not start so early in 
the spring or grow so rapidly as Ken- 
tucky blue-grass. 

Redtop. — The grass redtop (Fig. 65) 
is widely distributed. It grows best in 
a rather cool climate, but it also thrives 
in a warm climate and can be grown in 
the South. It is not as good a hay ^^' •~ ^ ^p- 

plant as timothy, but it stands wet and acid soils better and 
in the timothy region is often used on such soils in prefer- 
ence to timothy. Its principal merit is that it often will grow 




.4=^ 



V 

Fig. 64. — Canada 
blue-grass. 




Grasses and Sorghums 



171 



where timothy fails. As a pasture grass it ranks next to 
the blue-grasses. 

Orchard-grass. — The plants of orchard-grass (Fig. 66) grow 
well in the shade and, because of this, are often sown in orchards. 
They grow in bunches and make an uneven sod. 
The grass does well in the southern part of the 
timothy section and is also grown successfully 
about three hundred miles farther south. West 
Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri produce 
most of the crop. It will grow on most kinds 
of soil and will endure wet ground, but makes 
its best growth on well drained, fertile land. 
As a hay plant it is much less desirable than 
timothy and its culture becomes really impor- 
tant only outside of the timothy region. As a 
pasture grass it ranks with timothy; live-stock 
eat it readily and it starts 
growth early in the spring 
and continues late in the 
fall. 

Rye-grasses. — The rye- 
grasses are cultivated extensively in 
Europe, but not much in America. There 
are two kinds, the Italian and the Eng- 
lish, or perennial. Italian rye-grass (Fig. 
67) is a short-lived perennial ; often it 
lasts only one year. In the Pacific Coast 
States it is sometimes grown in meadows 
and has been recommended for the South 
as a soiling crop. English rye-grass is 
adapted to both pastures and meadows 
and is one of the chief grasses of Europe. 
It is a perennial that grows best on moist, fertile soils. It 
makes a good quality of hay and is grown to a limited extent 
in the Pacific Coast States. 





Fig. 66. — Or- 
chard-grass. 



Fig. 67. — Italian rye- 
grass. 



172 



Effective Farming 



Meadow-fescue. — Like the rye-grasses meadow-fescue (Fig. 
68) is grown extensively in Europe, but not much in America. 
The chief sections in the United States where it is found are 
western Missouri and northeastern Kansas. 
The quaUty of hay is not so good as that from 
timothy, but the yield is about the same. 

Tall oat-grass. — This oat-grass (Fig. 69) is 
a native of Europe where it is much used for 
meadows and pastures. In the South this grass 
remains green all winter and for this reason 
the name evergreen-grass is often applied to it. 
It seems well adapted to the South and will 
grow on soils too sandy for other grasses. 

Brome-grass. — The drought-resistant plant, 
brome-grass (Fig. 70), is adapted climatically 
to North Dakota and to the 
west and northwest of that state. 
It makes palatable pasture and 
good hay. A field is usually cut 
for hay for about two seasons, 
after which it is turned into 
pasture. It will not, as a rule, produce more 
than two good crops of hay, but will make ex- 
cellent pasture for several years. It is a very 
valuable grass in the regions where grown and 
supplies a great need in that territory. 

Bermuda-grass. — In the South, Bermuda-grass 
(Fig. 71) is grown extensively. It has a creeping 
habit and is much used as a pasture and lawn 
grass and to some extent for hay. When intended 
for hay, two or three cuttings are made in a Fig. 69. 
season and the total yield does not usually make 
more than a ton and a half to the acre. It is very persistent 
and very difficult to eradicate when once established and, for 
this reason, it is looked on with disfavor by many. 




Fig. 68. — Meadow 
fescue. 




Tall 
oat-grass. 



Grasses and Sorghums 



173 



Millets. — Several annual grasses are used for forage, the 

chief ones being the millets. The term millet includes a number 

of species. The ones most commonly grown in America are 

the foxtail millets, the broom-corn millets, and 

the barnyard millets. 

The foxtail millets resemble the foxtail weed. 

The three important varieties are common 

millet, German millet, and Hungarian millet. 

Common millet is the smallest and matures 

earliest. It is adapted to northern sections. 

Under favorable conditions it will yield two 

to two and one-half tons of hay to the acre. 

German millet is the largest variety and re- 
quires a somewhat longer season for develop- 
ment than either of the 
others. It is popular in 
the Central States and 
the South where it gives 
larger yields, but coarser 
hay than either of the 
other two foxtail millets. 
Hungarian millet is intermediate in size 
between the other two varieties and re- 
quires a longer season than common 
millet. It is popular in the Eastern 
States. Its yields are somewhat heavier 
than common millet, but the hay is 
likely to be of a poorer quality. 

The broom-corn millets have the head 
spreading in a panicle somewhat like the 
head of broom-corn. (See Fig. 72.) They 
mature earlier than the foxtail millets 

and are adapted for culture chiefly in the North Central States. 
The barnyard millets are varieties of the common weed, 

barnyard grass. A cultivated species known as Japanese 





Fig. 70. — Brome- 
grass. 



Fig. 71 . — Bermuda-grass. 



174 



Effective Farming 



m. 



millet is grown to a limited extent in the 
United States. The hay is coarse and of poor 
quality. 

The millets are quick-maturing crops and, 
in addition to being used for hay, are often 
planted for soiling crops and sometimes for 
pasture. They should be planted after the 
ground is warm, usually after corn-planting 
time. The seeds are small and the soil should 
be made into a fine seed-bed. 



SORGHUMS 

101. Description. — Three distinct classes 
of sorghums are grown in the United States, 
(1) the broom-corns, (2) the saccharine, or 
sweet sorghums, (3) the non-saccharine, or 
grain sorghums. All of the classes have cer- 
tain common characteristics. The plants are 
annuals belonging to the grass family; they 
have a strong, fibrous root system ; they 
withstand drought remarkably well ; the 
stems are tall, varying in different varieties 
from four or five feet to twelve feet ; the 
leaves are long, narrow and more pointed 
than those of corn ; the head varies in shape 
from a spike-like panicle in the grain sorghums 
to a long branched panicle in the broom- 
corns ; the grains are round, much smaller 
than those of corn, and are usually either red 
or white in color. 

102. Broom-corn. — This corn has straight 
stems and long, straight, loose, open heads 

that are used in the making of brooms. The stalks are dry 
and pithy and lack the sweet juice of the saccharine sorghums. 
The seed heads (Fig. 72) are known as the brush. 



Fig. 72. — Head of 
broom-corn. 



Grasses and Sorghums 175 

Groups. — Two groups of broom-corn are under culti- 
vation, the dwarf and the standard. The dwarf grows from 
four to six feet high, has a large quantity of fohage, and pro- 
duces a fine brush from ten to twenty-four inches long. It is 
usually made into whisk-brooms, although some of the larger 
heads are made into carpet brooms. The standard broom-corn 
grows to a height of ten to fifteen feet and has a brush from 
eighteen to twenty-eight inches long. It is used for the mak- 
ing of carpet, stable, and warehouse brooms. 

Cultural methods. — Broom-corn requires a climatic condition 
similar to that for corn. Most of the commercial crop is grown 
in Ilhnois, Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma, Illinois being the 
chief producer. 

Dwarf varieties are planted in rows usually three feet apart 
with the plants two to three inches apart in the rows ;' and 
standard varieties in rows from three and one-half to four feet 
apart with the plants three inches apart. The date of plant- 
ing is a Httle later than that for corn ; the ground must be 
thoroughly warmed before the seeds are sown. Corn-planters 
with small-hole drill plates are usually employed in planting 
the seed. The soil is cultivated as for corn. When the flowers 
are in full bloom the crop is harvested. In the operation of 
harvesting, the plants are either cut or pulled, the heads taken 
off and sorted, the immature seeds removed by means of a 
combing device or a thresher, and the brush cured and baled, 
in which form it is placed on the market. 

103. Saccharine sorghums. — These sorghums are grown 
for the production of sirup and for forage. They have tall, 
leafy stems that are full of sweet juice. This juice, when 
extracted and boiled, makes the familiar sorghum sirup of 
commerce. Sorghum for forage is grown for pasture, soiling, 
and silage. 

Groups. — Of the sweet sorghums many varieties are under 
cultivation, but they can all be arranged into four groups, 
known as amber, orange, sumac or redtop, and gooseneck. 



176 



Effective Farming 






The amber sorghums (Fig. 73) have loose open panicles 
usually black in color, and the seeds are reddish ^^ellow, but 

are nearly covered with black, 
shiny glumes. The varieties 
of this group are the earliest 
maturing of the sweet sorghums 
and are used extensively for 
forage in northern sections. 

The orange sorghums have 
a rather compact head and the 
reddish-yellow seeds project 
from the glumes farther than 
in the amber varieties, thus 
making the heads of a lighter- 
red color. The plants mature 
about two weeks later than the 
amber sorghums. (Fig. 74.) 

The sumac, or 
redtop, sorghums 
have small red seeds 
that project beyond 
the glumes and give the head a red appearance. 
They mature about the same time as the orange 
varieties. 

In the gooseneck sorghums the head is borne in a 
curved stem that bends downward. The heads at 
maturity are almost black in color and the plants 
mature about a week or ten days later than those 
of the orange or sumac varieties. 

Cultural methods. — When sorghum is grown for 
sirup, the seeds are usually planted in rows three Fig. 74. — 
or three and one-half feet apart and from four to Orange 

sorghum. 

six inches apart in the rows. When grown for 

forage the method of sowing will vary with the purpose for 

which it is to be used. It may be broadcasted, drilled in 




Fig. 73. — Amber sorghum. 




Grasses and Sorghums 



177 



with a grain drill with all the holes open, or with some of 
the holes closed to make the rows wide enough apart to 
permit of cultivation between them, or with a corn-planter. 
In favorable seasons the heaviest yield of hay and best quality 
forage are usually secured from broadcastmg or drilling in 
close rows. The crop for hay may be cut with a mower, a 
binder, or a scythe. When grown for silage, the seeds are 
planted in wide rows and the plants are usually cut with a 
corn-harvester. As 
a soiling crop, sor- 
ghum is more easily 
handled when sown 
in a wide row than 
in close planting. 
For pasture, it 
should be sown or 
drilled thickly. Sor- 
ghum is best cut for 
hay or soiling pur- 
poses from the time 
of heading until the 
seeds are in the 
dough stage. For 
sirup the harvesting 
is done when the 
seeds are in the late- 
milk stage. The 
heads and leaves are removed before the juice is pressed from 
the stalks, which is done by passing the stalks between heavy 
rollers, after which the juice is evaporated to the desired 
consistency. 

104. Non-saccharine sorghums. — These sorghums are 
grown chiefly for the grain, which is contained in the matured 
heads. The forage value of the stems is not large, except in 
the kafirs, which have semi-juicy stems with large and abundant 




Fig. 75. — Heads of four varieties of kafir. 



178 Effective Farming 

leaves. These grain sorghums are grown chiefly in Kansas, 
Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado. They are 
drought-resistant plants and make very valuable crops in 
sections too dry for corn. Compared with corn they are 
somewhat higher in protein, the carbohydrate content is about 
the same, and the fat much lower. In feeding value they 
have been found to be about 90 per cent that of corn. 
They are palatable and are eaten with relish by live-stock. 

Groups. — The chief groups of the non-saccharine sorghums 
are kafir (Fig. 75), milo, durra, and kaohang. The groups 
differ in shape and size of the heads and in size of the stem and 
stalks. All have the same use. 

Cultural methods. — The crop is seeded and cultivated much 
like corn. It is harvested in four ways — by cutting with a 
corn-binder, by heading with a kafir-header, or with an or- 
dinary grain-header, or by heading by hand. That cut with 
a corn-binder is usually shocked and either headed later or 
fed in the bundle. Proper curing and storage is a problem 
in handling the headed grain. If the crop is at all green or 
is wet from rains, the heads are usually thrown out in long, 
shallow piles to cure, after which they are stored in cribs or 
granaries. If the crop is fully mature and dry, the heads may 
be taken to the storage place without spreading in piles. Cribs 
and bins used for the storage of the heads must be well venti- 
lated or the grain will heat too much. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a grass from the botanical standpoint? 

2. State the chief uses of grasses. 

3. Why should not cheap grass seed be planted? 

4. What is meant by the curing of grass? 

5. Which grass grown for hay is of the greatest value in the United 
States? 

6. What is the chief grass used for hay in the region where you 
live ? How is this hay disposed of by the farmers ? Is it utihzed as 
feed for live-stock on their own farms or is it sold to be shipped from the 



Grasses and Sorghums 179 

region? Which method is better from a soil-improvement stand- 
point? 

7. Tell how the following grasses multiply after planting: tim- 
othy, Bermuda-grass, blue-grass. 

8. What are the chief annual grasses used for hay? 

9. State the characteristics of the sorghums. 

10. For what two purposes are saccharine sorghums grown? 

11. In what part of the United States are the grain sorghums 
grown? How does the grain of these plants compare with that of 
corn in feeding value ? 

EXERCISES 

1. Roots of grasses. — Dig up a few plants of timothy or other 
grass and wash the soil from the roots. How deep did the roots go into 
the soil? What term is employed to describe the root system of 
grasses? Dig up a few clover or alfalfa plants and compare with the 
grass plants. How do the two classes differ in length and arrange- 
ment of the roots ? 

2. Tillering of grasses. — Examine grass plants in the field for till- 
ering in the way small grains were examined. Which kinds tiller and 
which do not? 

3. Testing of seeds for germination. — Secure from several sources 
samples of grass seeds and test them for germinating properties in seed 
testers. 

4. Purity of seeds. — Examine the samples of grass seed with a 
hand lens to determine whether or not weed seeds are present. Secure 
from the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, a copy of 
Farmers' Bulletin 382 and by following the directions given in this 
bulletin determine the purity of the samples. 

5. Characteristics of different grasses. — Throughout the year as 
the different grasses mature secure plants showing roots, stems, and 
blossoms. Press and mount them on cardboard. When studying 
grasses in the laboratory observe their characteristics by examining 
these mounted specimens. Write descriptions and make drawings of 
the plants. 

6. Collection of seed. — The seeds of the chief grasses and the weed 
seed commonly found with the grass seed should be available for study 
in every school-room where secondary agriculture is taught, and these 
collections should be made by the pupils. To care for such samples 
properly some kind of a case is necessary in which to store the seeds. 
The following description of a seed case from Department Bulletin 527 
prepared by the author for the United States Department of Agricul- 



180 



Effective Farming 



ture will enable a pupil who is handy with tools to make a case for use 
in the school-room : 

"Figure 76 shows a convenient case in which small bottles of seeds may 
be stored. The bottles are straight sided, | inch in diameter and 2^ 
inches deep ; they can be purchased at drug stores for about 10 cents 
a dozen. The material required for making the case is a piece of white 







Tor i//f:^/ 






>|!0 



J OJJ 



r" 



-/^i- 






_J L. 



^^ 



J 






r/fo/vT y/frw 

Fig, 76. — Case for storing bottles of seeds. 

pine 2 inches by 4 inches by 20 inches. Finish the piece to the dimen- 
sions shown in the drawing, If by 3 by 19| inches. Gauge two lines 
i^ inch from both sides on one edge. On these gauge lines lay off cen- 
ters for holes 1^ inches apart, beginning \\ inches from one end. 
Place the piece, with a strip of scrap board against it on one side, in a 
vise, and with a f inch bit and brace bore holes 2f inches deep on the 



Grasses and Sorghums 181 

centers that have been laid off. The scrap board prevents the lumber 
from slivering. Bore the holes straight into the wood. To aid in 
boring the holes to the exact depth desired, bore a f inch hole lengthwise 
through a piece of scrap lumber 1^ by 1| by 4 inches, and slip this on 
the shank of the bit to form a collar ; the bit should extend 2f inches 
beyond the collar. Bore a trial hole in a piece of scrap lumber with 
this collar on the bit ; if the hole is too shallow, cut off the end of the 
collar to get the correct length ; if the hole is too deep, make another 
collar. After the holes are bored, trim the edges along the side of the 
piece until each opening is f inch wide. Bore and trim up the holes 
on the other side of the piece in the same manner. Paint or stain the 
case ; this will improve its appearance as well as preserve the wood." 

REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 365- 

377 ; 434-455 ; 574-582. The Maemillan Co. 
Livingston, George, Field Crop Productions. The Maemillan Co. 
Farmers' Bulletin 174, Broom Corn. 
Farmers' Bulletin 786, Dwarf Broom Corn. 
Farmers' Bulletin 246, Saccharine Sorghums for Forage. 
Farmers' Bulletin 470, Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. 
Farmers' Bulletin 288, The Non-saccharine Sorghums. 
Farmers' Bulletin 686, Uses of Sorghum Grain. 
Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1913, pp. 221-238, The 

Grain Sorghums : Immigrant Crops That Have Made Good. 
Farmers' Bulletin 508, Market Hay. 

Farmers' Bulletin 838, Harvesting Hay with the Sweep-Rake. 
Farmers' Bulletin 818, Bermuda Grass. 

Farmers' Bulletin 677, Growing Hay in the South for Market. 
Farmers' Bulletin 793, Foxtail Millet. 



CHAPTER IX 

LEGUMES 

Description of legumes. i 

Uses of legumes. 
Legumes for forage. 

Red clover, alsike clover, crimson clover, white clover, alfalfa, 

bur clovers, cowpeas, soybeans, field peas, vetches, Japan 

clover, peanuts. 

When studying soils we learned the great value of legumes 
for soil improvement by reason of the nitrogen that is converted 
into an available form by the bacteria on the roots. As hay 
and pasture plants, also, the legumes rank high and when grown 
with grasses, especially in pastures, the mixture makes a feed 
much relished by live-stock, and the food value is high. Many 
of the leguminous crops yield important human food, as lentils 
and the different kinds of beans and peas. The value of leg- 
umes both from the soil-improvement and the crop-producing 
standpoint is indeed very high and farmers could ill afford to 
do without them. The role of the legumes in nitrogen-gather- 
ing is one of the most fascinating of modern contributions to 
agriculture. 

105. Description. — The legumes, or pulse plants, are among 
the most useful of the cultivated plants. There are some 
ten thousand species, varying in size from small herbs to large 
trees. Those of most importance to the farmer are herbaceous 
plants that belong to the Papilionacese, or pea, sub-family. 
This name was given because of the resemblance of the flowers 
to a butterfly, the Latin name of the butterfly being papilio. 

The flowers are arranged differently in the various species. 
They may be single as in the cowpea, distributed along the 

182 



Legumes 183 

stem as in the vetches, in an umbel at the end of the branch 
as in the red clover, or in a spike as in the crimson clover. When 
arranged in an umbel or a spike, each of the single flowers has 
the butterfly-like appearance. 

The leaves of legumes are made up of three or more leaflets 
carried on a stalk, or petiole. Unlike the grasses, the legumes 
have a tap-root, which varies in depth and in methods of branch- 
ing. The fruit is a pod, or legume, and it is from the form of 
the fruit that the family of plants derives its name. 

106. Uses of legumes. — One of the chief uses of legumes 
is for hay. Each section of the country has a variety that can 
be grown profitably for this purpose. Legumes are valuable 
hay plants because they are rich in protein. Hay from grasses, 
on the contrary, is relatively poor in protein. In forming ra- 
tions for live-stock, it is often advantageous to mix the hays 
from the two kinds of plants in order to balance the protein- 
content. Often the two are seeded together. 

In addition to use as hay, legumes occupy an important place 
as pasture plants. White clover, where it will grow, is the most 
valuable legume for pastures. It has the creeping habit and 
when once established will soon spread, occupying much of 
the land together with the grasses. It stands grazing well, 
which is an important quality in a pasture plant. Japan clover 
and bur clover hold much the same place in the South as a 
pasture plant as white clover does in the North. Red and alsike 
clovers are used for pasture purposes, but these plants are 
grown principally for hay and the fields are used for pasture 
after the hay has been cut. In some sections alfalfa fields 
after the hay has been cut are used as pasture, especially for 
swine. 

Legumes are also used in making lawns. White clover is 
the chief sort for this purpose. Its seed is sown with the grass 
seed and the plants come up quickly, occupying much of the 
land the first season. In later seasons part of them disappear 
and the grass becomes estabhshed. 



184 



Effective Farming 



The seeds of many of the legumes are of use as human food. 
Beans, peas, peanuts, and some varieties of cowpeas and soy- 
beans are the chief legumes grown for this purpose. The 
seeds are rich in protein. 

Another very important use of legumes is as soil improvers. 
Legumes, whether grown for forage, seeds, or for turning under 

as green-manure crops, 
are of benefit to the soil 
and their great impor- 
tance to permanent soil 
fertility must not be lost 
^if '"H't K^J^^ ^^^^^ sight of by the American 

5Kb?^«W^I^ * {^ farmer if the fertility and 

L li^^^^^^^^^ ^^V^ productivity of the lands 

'*'^^i<" ^(S^D " ' '•^w3'^' ^''^"^ ^^ ^^ maintained. 

^^^^^^^t^^-'^^f^ , ^^'^- Legumes for for- 

> mmdTfiJyr. (Ot &: age. — Many species and 

varieties of legumes are 
under cultivation in the 
United States. Some 
grow much better in some 
sections than in others, 
but there is a variety 
adapted to every sec- 
tion. Among the chief 
legumes grown for forage 
are red clover, alsike 
clover, crimson clover, white clover, alfalfa, bur clover, field 
peas, cowpeas, soybeans, vetches, sweet clover, Japanese clover, 
Florida beggar-weed, velvet beans, and peanuts. 

Red clover. — The most important leguminous forage crop in 
the United States is red clover (Fig. 77). It is easily grow'n, 
is well adapted to crop rotation, and grows well with timothy, 
the chief grass used for hay. It has been for a long time a 
stable hay crop in the northeastern part of the United States. 




Fig. 77. — Red clover, the most important 
leguminous forage crop of the United States. 



Legumes 185 

It grows best in the timothy section, but is also cultivated 
extensively as far south as Tennessee, as far north as Ontario 
and Quebec, Canada, and as far west as the Dakotas. It is 
grown to a limited extent in the Northwestern States and in 
certain sections of the South. 

Well-drained, fertile soils of almost any type are suitable for 
red clover, provided they are not acid. The crop does very 
poorly on acid soils and liming is often necessary to secure a 
good stand. Frequently soils that formerly produced red clover 
profitably now fail to grow the crop, usually because of the 
need of lime. 

In the North red clover seed is usually planted in the early 
spring. One practice is to seed the land that has been planted 
to grain in the fall to clover. When such fields are to be planted, 
the clover seed is broadcasted on the growing grain very early 
in the spring ; often it is sown when a late snow covers the field. 
The soil is full of cracks at this season and the seed will sink 
into the ground and be covered with soil that is washed on it 
by the spring rains. Another practice is to sow the seed with 
spring grain ; in this case it is seeded at the same time as the 
grain. Where the young clover plant can stand the winter, 
the seed is often fall-sown. This is practiced as far north as the 
central part of Pennsylvania and Ohio. The first week in August 
is considered to be the latest that it should be sown for Pennsyl- 
vania and Ohio conditions. 

The harvesting of red clover for hay requires much care in 
order not to lose the leaves and blossoms. The maximum yield 
is secured if the plants are cut when in full bloom. When grown 
with timothy, it is not always possible to cut the clover at this 
stage. The timothy is usually about two weeks later in matur- 
ing and the clover will have lost some of its quality when the 
timothy is ready to cut. To avoid much loss of the leaves 
and blossoms, red clover or timothy containing a large propor- 
tion of red clover should be handled as little as possible when 
making the hay. Usually it is a good plan to put the hay 



186 



Effective Farming 



up in cocks before the leaves become very dry, as they will 
then dry out more slowly and will be more likely to remain 
on the stems'. 

Red clover seed often contains many weed seeds and it is 
necessary for farmers to examine carefully the seed that is 
offered for sale by dealers. The examination of a small sample 

with a hand lens will often 
reveal many weed seeds. 

Alsike clover. — The stems 
of alsike clover are about as 
tall as those of red clover 
and its blossoms are about 
the same size and shape as 
white clover, but are pinkish 
in color. The leaves are 
similar to those of white 
clover, but are without the 
white crescent-shaped 
marks. (See the description 
of white clover.) Alsike 
clover is used for the same 
purposes as red clover. It 
grows best in a cool climate 
and on moist soil, but it will 
grow farther south and 
farther north than red clover and in soils too wet and too acid 
for the latter. Often the seed is sown in mixtures with red 
clover and timothy. The yield of alsike clover hay is some- 
what less than that of red clover hay and as a result the latter 
is preferred where it will grow. 

Crimson clover. — In the South an important crop for hay 
and green-manure is crimson clover (Fig. 78). In most varieties 
the blossoms are crimson or scarlet, cone-shaped, an inch or 
even two inches long. A variety with white blossoms is offered 
by seedsmen and grown to a limited extent. As usually grown, 




Fig. 



78. — Crimson clover, an important 
crop in the South. 



Legumes 



187 



the seed is planted in the fall and the plants harvested the next 
spring. The crop is grown principally from New Jersey south- 
ward. The chief use is as a green-manure crop, as described 
previously. Nevertheless, it is used largely as hay and when 
cut the plants should be harvested before the stems become too 
woody. The leaves and stems are covered with fine hairs and 
if the plants are woody 
before they are cut, 
masses of hair are likely 
to form in the stomach 
and intestines of ani- 
mals that eat the hay 
and in some instances 
have been known to 
cause death. 

White clover. — Dutch, 
or white, clover has 
the creeping habit, a 
quality desirable in pas- 
ture and lawn plants. 
The blossoms are white 
and the leaves are 
marked with a white 
crescent-shaped mark. 
The plant has a wide 
adaption and grows 
wherever red or alsike 
clover thrives and also much farther south. In the northern 
part of the cotton-belt it often survives the summers. 

Alfalfa. — In the western half of the United States, alfalfa 
(Fig. 79) is the most important forage crop. It is also culti- 
vated to a limited extent in certain sections of the East and 
South, where, when soil and climatic conditions are favorable, 
it makes a profitable stand. 

Alfalfa is a strongly branching perennial that when mature 





^ 


b 


m 


> 


i^^ 


m 


^^& 


^ 


^1 


^ 


1^^ 




^^ 


1 


W 


^i 


& 


s 


^ 



Fig. 79. — Alfalfa, the chief forage crop of the 
West. 



188 



Effective Farming 



often reaches the height of four feet. Stems branch from the 
crown, or top of the tap-root, and also from the lower part of 
the stem. The number of stems varies from three to fifteen. 
The roots are longer than those of any other cultivated herba- 
ceous plant. In the West on deep soil they have been known 
to reach a length of thirty feet, while in the East where red clover 
roots would go to a depth of five feet, alfalfa roots would be 




Fig. 80. — An alfalfa field. 



about eight or ten feet long. The leaves are smaller than 
those of red clover and somewhat more pointed and the flowers 
are purple and arranged in rather long clusters. 

In semi-arid countries alfalfa has been known to live fifty 
years and in the humid climate of the East and South fields 
will be profitable from five to eight years without replanting. 
Several cuttings of hay can be secured each year ; in the East 
at least three are usually made and in the South and parts of 
the West five are possible. A total yearly acre-production of 
four to eight tons of hay is often secured. Fig. 80 shows a 



Legumes 



189 



field of alfalfa being cut. Notice the quantity of forage. Be- 
cause of the long life of the plant and the fact that so much hay 
can be cut annually, farmers in the East and South often go to 
considerable trouble and expense in their efforts to grow the crop. 

Alfalfa seems to prefer a loose, deep soil ; however, good crops 
have been grown on fairly heavy soils. The soils must be well 
drained. The water-level 
should be at least two 
feet below the surface and 
preferably three or four 
feet or more. Fertility 
of soil is an important 
factor; it never pays to 
try to secure a stand of 
alfalfa on poor soil. 
Also, sour soils should 
be avoided. Like red 
clover, alfalfa will not 
make satisfactory growth 
on such soils and often 
the reason for a poor 
stand is that the soil was 
not sufficiently limed be- 
fore seed planting. 

In addition to its use 
as a hay, alfalfa is a 
valuable soiling crop. It 
makes so many cuttings a season that a small acreage will 
furnish green feed for a large number of cattle. It is used 
to some extent as a pasture for hogs, but not often for cattle. 
When pasturing a piece of alfalfa, care should be taken that it 
is not closely grazed, for if so the new growth may be injured. 
Like red clover, alfalfa seed often contain impurities and this 
should be kept in mind by purchasers. 

Bur clovers. — Although called clovers, the bur clovers 




Fig. 81. — Spotted bur clover. 



190 



Effective Farming 



belong to a different family and are related to alfalfa. Two 
kinds are grown in the United States, the spotted, or southern 
(Fig. 81), and the toothed, or Cahfornia (Fig. 82). The spotted 

variety is distinguished by a 
purple spot in the center of 
each leaflet, the toothed by the 
edges of the leaves. The bur 
clovers are low-growing plants 
that spread out on the ground 
unless seeded thickly or grown 
with grasses. They are adapted 
to regions with mild, moist 
winters. They find their 
greatest usefulness in this 
country in the Gulf Coast 
States, except Florida, and 
along the Pacific Coast. 

The best time for planting 
in the South is September, but 
seedings as early as August or 
as late as December often give 
fair results. Either hulled or 
unhuUed seeds may be sown, but as the hulled seeds germinate 
more readily planting may be delayed about two to four weeks 
if this kind is used. The usual time for planting in California 
is the first part of October. 

Bur clovers are grown for hay, for pasture, and for green- 
manure. When grown for hay, a dense stand is necessary to 
secure a crop, because of the trailing habits of the vines. Often 
the seed is sown with oats or wheat, as the plants then have 
the tendency to grow erect. For pasture purposes bur clovers 
are used for hogs, cattle, sheep, and poultry ; horses and niules 
do not eat them. In the South a mixture of bur clover and Ber- 
muda-grass is very satisfactory for pasture. Its use as green- 
manure is discussed in a previous chapter. 




Fig. 82. — Toothed bur clover. 



Legumes 



191 



Cowpeas. — The most important legume grown in the South 
is the cowpea (Fig. 83). It has been cultivated for a long time 
in Europe, but has been of importance in the United States 
only for about the past hundred years. It is of tropical origin 
and does best in warm climates having a long growing season. 




Fig. 83. — Cowpeas. 

The plants are used for hay, for pasture, for green-manure, 
and for the seeds. The hay is about equal in value to alfalfa 
hay, but it is somewhat less palatable. Cowpeas do not make 
a very good pasture, but are sometimes used for this purpose 
for sheep and hogs. As a green-manure crop they are especially 
valuable. In the South the seeds of some of the many varieties 
are often harvested for human food. They make a palatable 



192 



Effective Farming 



dish and, like garden peas and garden beans, are rich in 
protein. 

The usual ways of planting cowpeas are broadcasting, seed- 
ing in rows about thirty-six inches apart, and sowing with other 
seeds such as corn, sorghum, or millet. When the crop is to 

be turned under for 



green-manure the seeds 
are generally broad- 
casted. When sown 
with corn they may be 
drilled in when the corn 
is planted or their plant- 
ing may be delayed until 
after the last cultivation 
of corn when they may 
be broadcasted or a row 
drilled in next to the 
corn. When sown with 
sorghum or millet they 
are broadcasted with 
the seeds of these plants 
and the whole crop 
harvested for hay. The 
mixed planting makes 
a hay crop easier to cure 
than when the cowpeas 
are sown alone. 




Fig. 84. — Soybeans. 



Soybeans. — The soybean (Fig. 84) is an erect-growing, bushy 
plant that reaches a height varying usually from two to three 
and one-half feet. These plants are valuable for forage and 
for green-manure and the seeds are used for human food. They 
are hot-weather plants like cowpeas, but can be grown about 
three hundred miles farther north. They do well in a humid 
climate, but they also have drought-resistant qualities that 
make them useful in regions having hot, dry summers. In 



Legumes 193 

general it may be said that soybeans will prosper wherever 
corn can be grown profitably. When the crop is to be used for 
hay, the plants should be cut before the leaves are very mature ; 
if allowed to stand too long before cutting, the leaves will drop 
off in curing and the stems will be woody. The soybean can 
be used successfully for soiling purposes ; by planting several 
varieties that mature at different times, a succession of green 
crops can be obtained. The crop is sometimes pastured, but 
like cowpeas is not especially valuable for this purpose. In 
many sections, especially in the South, the seeds are ground 
and the oil extracted. The oil, meal, and cake are used in the 
same way as cotton-seed products. The methods of planting 
and of harvesting are similai' to those followed for cowpeas. 

Field peas. — With the exception of colored flowers and the 
seeds inclined to be yellow, field peas are much like garden 
peas. They are grown most successfully in regions having a 
cool summer and reach their best development in Canada and 
the northern part of United States. Wisconsin, Michigan, 
Pennsylvania, New York, and the high valleys of Colorado 
produce most of the crop in the United States. The seed is 
usually sown with oats. The combination is used mostly for 
green-manure, soiling crops, or hay, but the plants are some- 
times allowed to mature and the grains harvested together. 

Vetches. — The types of vetches have been described on 
previous pages. In addition to use as green-manure, they are 
sown for hay and soiling crops. When intended for hay, 
vetch is usually seeded with a cereal, because of the trailing 
habits of the plants. Seeded in the fall with rye or wheat, 
vetch produces an excellent soiling crop for use in the early 
spring. 

Japan clover. — The legume known as Japan clover is an 
annual, usually from eight to ten inches high, sometimes under 
favorable conditions reaching a height of fifteen inches. It is 
not a clover as the name seems to indicate, but belongs to a 
different subclass of plants. Its chief use is for pasture in the 



194 



Effective Farming 



South, where it grows well with Bermuda-grass. A mixture 
of Bermuda-grass, bur clover, and Japan clover will furnish 
a year-round pasture. When grown on rich land, Japan clover 
will make a good hay crop, often yielding as high as two tons 
an acre. 

Peanuts. — The peanut is an important farm crop in cer- 
tain sections of the South. A few counties in eastern North 

Carolina and southeastern 
Virginia produce somewhat 
over half of the commercial 
crop of the United States. 
Peanuts are grown, however, 
to a limited extent in a wide 
range of territory in the 
South. The plant belongs 
to the pea sub-family. It 
bears its seed, the ''nuts," 
underground. The flowers 
are borne on short stems and 
when the petals fade the 
stems elongate and turn 
downward ; the pistil, which 
is pointed, passes into the 
soil where the ovary develops 
into the pod. In case the 
pistil fails to penetrate the 
soil, no fruit will be formed. The pod contains from one to 
four seeds. A root of a peanut plant with the stems and nuts 
is shown in Fig. 85. There are two general types of these 
nuts. One has large pods and either spreading or upright 
vines ; the other has small pods and compact, upright vines. 
Virginia Runner and Virginia Bunch (Fig. 86) are large- 
podded varieties. The former has prostrate stems and the 
latter upright stems. The Spanish is a small-podded variety. 
The peanut is a valuable human food. The roasted un- 




FiG. 85. 



Base of peanut plant, showing 
the nuts. 



Legumes 



195 



shelled nuts and the shelled salted nuts are famihar to all. 
Peanut-butter, a food manufactured from the kernels, has the 
valuable property of not becoming rancid. In foreign countries 
the oil is extracted from the kernels and is used as an article 
of commerce. It has about the same uses as cottonseed oil. 
The peanut cake which results from the extraction of the oil 
is a valuable live-stock feed. In the United States the oil 
industry has not been developed extensively, although the cot- 




FiG. 86. — Virginia Bunch peanuts. 

tonseed oil mills are now beginning to crush some of the nuts 
for southern farmers. 

In many sections the chief use of peanuts is as a live-stock 
feed. Often seed are planted as a catch crop between the rows 
of corn at the last cultivation. The corn is husked from the 
standing stalks and cattle are turned into the field to forage for 
the leaves of corn and the peanut vines. Later hogs are turned 
into the fields to eat the peanuts. They will harvest them by 
rooting them from the ground. When peanuts are grown for 
market, the vines are useful as forage. Their feeding value 
is about equal to that of clover hay. 



196 Effective Farming 

When grown for the nuts, a hght, sandy or loamy soil is 
preferred. Such soils are easy to keep in good tilth, a condi- 
tion necessary in order that the pistil can enter the soil easily. 
When grown on the red soils so prevalent in the South, 
the hulls are likely to be stained, which injures the market 
value of the nuts. If grown for stock-feeding, however, the 
staining of the shell is of no consequence. 

The land to be planted to peanuts should not be weedy and 
for this reason it is well to have the crop follow a cultivated 
one like cotton or corn. Fertilizers are used with good results. 
Phosphoric acid seems to be the chief ingredient necessary and 
potash next. The nitrogen-content is generally rather low. 
The usual mixture when potash can be secured cheaply con- 
tains about 2 per cent nitrogen, 8 to 10 per cent phosphoric 
acid, and 6 per cent potash. From three hundred to five hun- 
dred pounds an acre is the general application. Like some other 
legumes, peanuts do very poorly on sour soils and in the region 
in which they are most grown an occasional liming is profitable. 

The upright varieties are usually planted in rows thirty 
inches apart and the spreading varieties in rows thirty-six 
inches apart. In the rows the former are spaced seven or eight 
inches and the latter, at least twelve inches. The small-podded 
varieties are usually planted in the pod ; the larger ones are 
shelled. Special planters are in use in regions where the pea- 
nut industry is extensive. About two bushels of seed an acre 
are required when the nuts are planted in the pods and about 
a half bushel when shelled nuts are planted. From one and 
one-half to two inches is the usual depth of planting, but this 
varies somewhat with the soil and the time of planting. 

Peanuts should be dug before frost. September and October 
are the months when most of the harvesting is done. The usual 
method is to remove the moldboard from a plow and run this 
plow along each side of the row with the moldboard side next 
to the row. This cuts off the roots without turning a furrow. 
The plants are then lifted with forks or by hand and thrown 



Legumes 



197 



into piles. The vines are allowed to lie for a few hours in these 
piles and are stacked usually on the same day that they are 
dug. The stacks are narrow and five or six feet high and are 
built around a central pole which has been driven into the 
ground. At the base of the pole, cross sticks are nailed to keep 
the peanuts off the ground. The vines are piled with the 
nuts toward the center, space being left around the pole for 




*""^/^'m' 



^^ 



Fig. 87. — Method of stacking peanut vines. 



ventilation. The stack is usually capped with a bunch of grass 
or hay to shed rain. Fig. 87 shows a laborer stacking pea- 
nuts. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe briefly the flowers, leaves, pods, and roots of legumes. 

2. In what sections of the United States is red clover the chief 
legume planted for forage ? 

3. Why do legumes make better hay for dairy cows than grasses? 

4. Why are legumes particularly valuable for green-manure? 

5. State the uses of legumes other than for hay. 



198 Effective Farming 

6. Often an application of lime is an aid in getting a good stand of 
red clover or alfalfa. Why is this? 

7. Why are weed seeds more often found in red clover seed than in 
grass seed? 

8. Describe the alsike clover plant and compare with red clover. 

9. Why is white clover so well adapted for lawns and pastures ? 

10. Describe the alfalfa plant. 

11. Give some of the qualities of alfalfa that make it a valuable 
forage plant. 

12. What are the usual ways of planting cowpeas? 

13. Describe the method of planting peanuts. 

14. How are peanuts harvested? 

15. List and describe the legumes cultivated in your section of the 
country. 

EXERCISES 

1. Roots of legumes. — Dig up roots of several different kinds of 
legumes, wash carefully, and examine for tubercules. Are they all of 
the same size? Describe the root system of legumes and compare it 
with that of grasses. 

2. Testing legume seeds for germination. — Secure seeds of differ- 
ent kinds of legumes and test them for the percentage of germination 
as directed for grasses. 

3. Purity of legume seeds. — Small seeds like those of alfalfa and 
red clover often contain many weed seeds. Examine samples care- 
fully as directed for grasses. Learn to identify the common weed seeds 
usually found with the legume seeds. 

4. Experiment with red clover. — In the red-clover region a very 
interesting and instructive experiment can be made by pupils to de- 
termine the advantage of liming the soil, especially if the soil is inclined 
to be acid. Lay off two plots of a square rod each in the school yard 
or on a near-by farm. Prepare the soil for planting by spading and 
raking it well. On one plot spread twenty-five pounds of ground 
limestone (how much is this an acre?). Leave the other plot untreated. 
Sow red clover seed on both plots and observe the results. Often but 
little difference will be seen until the second year. 

5. Experiment with alfalfa. — In the East and South where alfalfa 
is not particularly well adapted to conditions, a plot experiment carried 
out as here directed will be a good indication of whether or not this 
crop can be grown profitably and how the land should be treated. Ar- 
range four rod-square plots and prepare the soil carefully for planting 
as directed for red clover. To plot 1 apply twenty-five pounds of 



Legumes 199 

ground limestone. To plot 2 apply the same quantity of limestone and 
inoculate the soil with alfalfa bacteria by spreading on it soil from an 
old alfalfa field. This should be done in the late afternoon or on a 
cloudy day. Why? Inoculate the soil in plot 3, but do not treat it 
with lime. Leave plot 4 as a check by giving it neither lime nor inocu- 
lation. Plant the seeds and observe the results of the treatment as the 
crop grows. Draw conclusions as to the best way to treat soil for 
alfalfa in your region. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 391-395. 

Also special articles on each chief leguminous crop. The Mac- 

millan Co. 
Montgomery, E. G., Productive Farm Croups. The Lippincott Co. 
Livingston, George, Field Crop Production. The Macmillan Co. 
Farmers' Bulletin 455, Red Clover. 
Farmers' Bulletin 550, Crimson Clover. 
Farmers' Bulletin 646, Crimson Clover : Seed Production. 
Farmers' Bulletin 339, Alfalfa. 
Farmers' Bulletin 495, Alfalfa Seed Production. 
Farmers' Bulletin 693, Bur Clover. 
Farmers' Bulletin 318, Cowpeas. 
Farmers' Bulletin 672, Soybeans. 
Farmers' Bulletin 515, Vetches. 
Farmers' Bulletin 690, Field Pea. 
Farmers' Bulletin 431, The Peanut. 
Farmers' Bulletin 441, Lespedeza, or Japan Clover. 
Farmers' Bulletin 751, Peanut Oil. 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 75, Alfalfa Seed Production. 



CHAPTER X 

POTATOES 

White Potatoes 

Distribution of production. 

Yields. 

Climate and soils. 

Fertilizing land. 

Planting. 

Quantity and size of seed potatoes. 

Depth of planting. 
Cultivating the potato fields. 
Harvesting and storing. 
Insect pests. 

Colorado potato-beetle. 

Flea-beetle. 
Diseases. 

Early blight. 

Late blight. 

Potato scab. 

Siveet Potatoes 
Distribution and use. 
Soils. 

Fertilizing the land. 
Cultural methods. 
Harvesting and storing. 
Pests of the sweet potato. 

Root-borer. 

Black-rot. 

Potatoes are of two main kinds or species, — the white, Irish, 
or round potatoes grown in the Northern States and Canada 
and in the Southern States as a cool-season or early crop, 
and the sweet potato, grown extensively in the South. Both 

200 



Potatoes 201 

of them are staple articles of food in North America, and the 
white potato is an article of extensive international commerce. 
Every day in practically every famil}^ in this country finds on 
the table potatoes of one kind or the other and prepared in 
many different ways. To grow and handle these crops is one 
of the primary requirements of the American farmer. The 
two species of potatoes require very different culture and 
handling, to which we may now give attention. 

WHITE POTATOES 

108. Distribution of production. — Europe is first in white- 
potato production, supplying about 90 per cent of the total 
crop of the world. North America comes next, with about 
7 per cent. Asia, Australia, South America, and Africa fol- 
low, each with less than 1 per cent. Germany and Russia 
produce about half the world's crop. In the United States, 
according to the 1910 census, the chief producing states in 
the order of production are New York, Pennsylvania, Maine, 
Michigan, and Ohio. 

109. Yields. — The average acre-yield of white potatoes 
in the United States is about eighty -five to ninety bushels ; 
that of Germany is two hundred bushels and of France one 
hundred thirty-three bushels. The highest recorded yield 
in the United States is 974.8 bushels. From a comparison of 
these figures, it is readily seen that improvement in white- 
potato production in the United States is very possible. 

110. Climate and soils. — The white potato does best in 
the cooler parts of the temperate zone. The nights should be 
cool, the days warm and sunshiny, and the growing season free 
from frost. In the United States the climatic conditions in 
the Northeastern States are well suited to potatoes. However, 
some very good yields are secured in the South. 

White potatoes are grown successfully on many kinds of 
soils. They do best, however, on loose, well drained, fertile, 
sandy loams. On loose soils the crop is easy to plant, culti- 



202 Effective Farming 

vate, and harvest, quick to mature, and the tubers are likely 
to be of good quality. 

111. Fertilizing land. — In the East more manure and com- 
mercial fertilizer to the acre are used for white potatoes than 
for any other farm crop. Often as high as one thousand to 
two thousand pounds an acre of commercial fertilizer are 
applied to the soil. The fertilizer should be high in the mineral 
elements, but may be relatively low in nitrogen. A formula 
much used in the Eastern States is 3-8-10. Many growers 
claim, however, that this is too high in potash. During the 
war with Germany, with potash fertilizers so high in price and 
difficult to secure, growers are obliged to use much less potash 
than formerly ; nevertheless they secure good results. 

112. Planting. — The time for planting white potatoes 
varies with the climatic conditions, the variety, and whether 
early or late varieties are grown. In northern sections early 
varieties are planted as soon as the ground can be prepared 
in the spring. Late varieties are usually planted in May, 
although in some sections not until the middle of June. In 
the South for the first crop, potatoes are planted from February 
to April, according to conditions and the late crop, from about 
July 15 to August 15. 

Quantity and size of seed potatoes. — The quantity of seed 
pieces to be planted to the acre varies with the distance apart 
they are placed and with the method adopted. If the crop is 
grown in drills about thirty inches apart and the pieces are 
fifteen inches apart in the row, about seventeen or eighteen 
bushels of seed pieces are necessary for each acre. If grown in 
hills about thirty-six inches apart, about twelve bushels are 
required. 

The determination of the best size of seed piece has been the 
basis of many experiments and the results seem to show that 
a three-ounce piece will give larger yields than those of any 
other size. The question, also, as to whether whole or cut seed 
should be used is of importance. For the main crop in the 



Potatoes 203 

North, cut pieces are satisfactory; in the South, small whole 
seed potatoes seem, as a rule, to give better results. This is 
true in the South because the crop, if early, is planted on 
cold ground, and under these conditions the cut seed is likely 
to rot. Still, cut seed pieces are often planted with good 
results. 

Depth of planting. — Rather deep planting, from four to six 
inches, is advisable under most conditions. If seed are planted 




Fig. 88. — Potato-planter — a labor-saving implement. 

too shallow, the tubers form near the surface and many are 
likely to become sunburned by exposure. Moreover deep 
planting usually gives better yields than shallow planting. 
In some sections shallow planting is practiced and, as the 
plants grow, the earth is ridged up over the roots and tubers. 
Figure 88 shows a much used type of potato-planter. Such 
machines are effective labor-savers and are practicable when 
large areas are planted. 

113. Cultivating the potato fields. — Cultivation is one of 
the important factors in white-potato growing. If weeds 
appear on the ground or a crust has formed on the soil, a har- 



204 



Effective Farming 



row or a weeder should be used before the plants are above the 
ground, and these implements can well be employed until the 
vines are six inches or so high. Subsequent cultivation is 
usually carried on with the horse-drawn cultivators used for 




>:: 'M':.i^^-zvi 



Fig. 89. — Green Mountain potatoes. 

corn. Implements fitted with narrow blades give good results, 
as they make a fine, even surface on the soil. Several culti- 
vations are necessary throughout the season ; the working of 
the soil should be kept up until the vines cover the ground. 
It is well to go over the field at least once with a hoe to kill 
weeds between the plants in the row. 



Potatoes 



205 



114. Harvesting and storing. — Much of the white-potato 
crop is dug by hand (Fig. 89) with a potato hook or a spading 
fork. Horse-drawn diggers are used where large acreages 
are grown. Of these there are several types, ranging from a 
plow fitted with iron rods for the purpose of shaking the dirt 
from the tubers, to implements like the one shown in Fig. 
90, that dig, ele- 
vate, and deposit 
the potatoes on the 
ground. 

A large part of 
the late crop is 
stored for use in the 
winter. A storage 
place for potatoes 
should be cool, dry, 
and well ventilated 
and, as the tubers 
freeze easily, the 
temperature of the 
storage room should 
never be down to 

the freezing point. From 40 to 50° F. is a good range of 
temperature for the potato storage place. When a cellar is 
utiHzed, it should be kept dark and be provided with both 
an intake and an outtake for air ; ventilation is an important 
factor in the storing of potatoes. 

115. Insect pests. — The white potato is subject to two 
troublesome insect pests, the Colorado potato-beetle and the 
flea-beetle. Of these the Colorado potato-beetle does the most 
damage. 

Colorado potato-beetle. — The familiar striped potato-bug is 
the Colorado potato-beetle. The female lays eggs on the 
leaves of the plants. Larvae from these eggs start at once to 
eat the foUage and if not checked will soon strip the plant of 




Fig. 90. — Potato-digger. 



206 Effective Farming 

its leaves. The remedy is to spray the vines with a poison. 
Arsenate of lead paste, three pounds to fifty gallons of water, 
is effective or one pound of paris green to fifty gallons of water 
may be used, although with paris green there is some danger 
of burning the leaves. When the vines are sprayed with bor- 
deaux mixture for blight, as described later, poison to kill the 
beetles may be added to the bordeaux, thus making one spray- 
ing answer for both the beetles and the blight. 

Flea-beetle. — Small flea-like beetles are often seen on the 
leaves of tomatoes and white potatoes. The damage is done 
by the mature insect which makes holes in the leaves, thereby 
depriving the plant of a part of the foliage. The beetles are 
not readily poisoned, but they seem to be repelled by bordeaux 
mixture and, therefore, fields that have been sprayed with bor- 
deaux for the blight are not usually troubled with flea-beetles. 

116. Diseases. — Troublesome diseases of the white potato 
are early bhght, late blight, and scab. These cause a large 
annual money loss in the United States, much of which could 
be prevented by timely spraying. 

Early blight. — The vines in the early or middle part of the 
summer are subject to attack by early blight. Small brown 
spots appear on the leaves and later they enlarge and show 
rings one within another. Often the edges of the leaves die. 
Later in the season they turn yellow and the plants have some- 
what the appearance that the vines assume when they are 
mature. The loss of the foliage causes the tubers to stop 
growing. The remedy is to spray with bordeaux mixture, 
but the spraying to be effective must be done before the blight 
has started. Growers in regions where early blight is preva- 
lent often spray the vines before there is any sign of the dis- 
ease, this being considered an insurance. 

Late blight. — In leaves of plants affected with late blight, 
there appear dead areas usually at the margin, but often on 
any part. The diseased portion may be brown or nearl}^ 
black and a disagreeable odor nearly always accompanies it. 



Potatoes 207 

Often there appears a moldy, downj^ growth on the surface 
of the leaves. This has given rise to the name, downy mildew, 
which is often used for the late blight. The spores of this 
white growth multiply rapidly and are easily scattered by the 
wind, which is one reason for the rapid spreading of late blight. 
The remedy is to spray with bordeaux mixture, and to be 
effective the spraying should be done early in the season before 
the bUght starts. In New York late blight usually occurs 
any time after the first of August. In regions farther south 
it may appear earlier. 

Potato scab. — The chief fungous disease that attacks the 
tubers is scab. The surface of a scabby potato is rough and 
broken. To combat the disease the seed pieces are disinfected 
before they are planted. This is usually done by soaking them 
for two hours before they are cut in a solution of one-half pint 
of formalin to fifteen gallons of water. Another method is to 
soak them for an hour and a half in a solution of bichloride of 
mercury made by dissolving twelve ounces in fifteen gallons of 
water. 

SWEET POTATOES 

117. Distribution and use. — Sweet potatoes are of tropical 
origin, and require a warm climate. The bulk of the commercial 
crop is grown in the South ; the only state outside of that sec- 
tion producing any large quantity is New Jersey. The states 
growing large crops in the usual order of the amount of their 
production are Georgia, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, 
Virginia, South Carolina, Louisiana, Texas, Tennessee, and 
New Jersey. 

Although the sweet potato is a perennial, it is cultivated as 
an annual. The part used for food is the fleshy root. The 
plants seldom produce flowers or seeds and they are propa- 
gated, except in the case of new varieties, by division. The 
chief use of the roots is as human food, but they are sometimes 
fed to live-stock, especially hogs. 



208 Effective Farming 

118. Soils. — A sandy or a sandy loam soil that is warm and 
well drained is best for sweet potatoes. On wet land the roots 
are likely to be coarse and of poor quality. Although often 
grown on heavy soils, the crop is likely to be late and not of 
good quality. Also, particles of the soil usually adhere to the 
potatoes, which detracts from their appearance. If clay soils 
are used, they should be well supplied with humus, as this 
tends to lighten them. Humus is an important factor on light 
soils, also, and should always be plentifully supplied. 

119. Fertilizing the land. — Commercial fertilizer is profitably 
used for sweet potatoes. On sandy soils potassium is of chief 
importance and phosphorus next. A large proportion of 
nitrogen is not needed, as it stimulates too much vegetative 
growth. The general formula used contains about 1 or 2 
per cent of nitrogen, 6 to 8 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 
8 to 10 per cent of potash, but these percentages are often 
varied considerably, depending on the soil and the price of 
fertilizer materials. 

Green-manuring is a common practice on sweet potato land, 
especially in the South. A crop of crimson clover turned 
under a few weeks before setting the plants supplies both nitro- 
gen and humus. In New Jersey barnyard manure is often 
used, but in the South manure is not usually available. 

120. ' Cultural methods. — The crop should be grown in a 
rotation that does not bring it on the piece of ground oftener 
than once in three or four years. This aids in combating a 
very troublesome disease called black-rot. The crop should 
follow a cultivated one like cotton or corn, in which has been 
sown a catch crop of legumes, as the cultivated crop will tend 
to free the land of weeds. 

The depth of plowing is influenced somewhat by the kind of 
root demanded on the market. A short, well-rounded potato 
sells best and to secure this sort, rather shallow plowing is 
necessary. On light soils a depth of about five inches seems 
to give the desired result, while on heavier soils a greater depth 



Potatoes 



209 



may be plowed without affecting the length of the potato. In 
the South most of the crop is planted on ridges. Experience 
indicates that low ridges, not over four or five inches above 
the water-furrow, are preferable to high ones. The ridges are 
generally made over a furrow in which fertilizer has been dis- 
tributed. In New Jersey level cultivation is practiced. 

The sweet potato slips for 
planting are secured by plac- 
ing the roots in a layer in 
hot-beds or especially con- 
structed places supplied with 
bottom heat. Above the 
layer of potatoes is placed 
a layer of leaf-niold or sandy 
soil. The roots are bedded 
about six weeks before the 
time of setting the slips in 
the field. When the shps 
are about six or seven inches 
long, they are removed, or 
drawn, as the operation is 
called, and transplanted to 
the field. Fig. 91 shows the 
rooted slips ready for set- 
ting in the field and Fig. 92, 
the beds with slips ready to 
pull. The bed must be watered and the slips drawn carefully. 
The potato is held down with one hand and the slip pulled loose 
with the other, the potato being left in the bed so that more 
slips will develop from it. Later another drawing of slips is 
made. To prevent the roots from drying out, the slips should 
be set in the field as soon as possible after they are removed 
from the bed. Some growers dip them in a thin mixture of 
clay, fresh cow manure, and water. This forms a coating over 
them and prevents drying out. Many growers prefer to set 




Fig. 91. — Sweet potato slips ready for 
setting in the field. 



210 



Effective Farming 



the slips only after a rain ; others do not wait for a rain, but 
water the plants soon after they are set. 

Preparatory to transplanting the slips, the soil is smoothed 
and, when hand transplanting is practiced, the rows are marked 
in some way in order that the plants will stand a uniform dis- 
tance apart. One person then drops the plants one at a time 
near where they are to be planted and another follows and 
places them in the soil. A dibble or small trowel is often used 




Fig. 92. — Sweet potato slips in hot-bed ready to pull for transplanting 



in setting the plants, but many growers, to^void bending over and 
straightening up as each plant is set, make use of long-handled 
tongs and a lath sharpened to a flat point. In setting with the 
tongs and sharpened lath, the former is held in one hand and the 
latter in the other. Each slip in turn is picked up with the tongs, 
a hole is made in the ground with the sharpened stick, the slip 
placed in it, and the soil settled about the plant with the stick 
or the foot of the one doing the setting. Transplanting machines 
(Fig. 93) are now in common use in regions where sweet potatoes 
are an important crop. One of these machines sets and waters 
the slips as fast as a team can pull it across the field. 



Potatoes 



211 



When grown in ridges the plants are usually set in rows three 
to four feet apart and eighteen inches apart in the row. When 
level culture is practiced, the rows are usually thirty inches 
apart and the plants twenty-four inches apart in the rows. 
In some truck-gardening regions, they are often set two feet 
by two feet each way. 

When not enough plants are furnished by slips, vine cuttings 
are often made to supply the deficiency. The vines send out 




Fig. 93. — Setting sweet potato slips with a transplanter. 



roots from the nodes when they touch the ground. A cut- 
ting is made from the tip end of the vine, about eight or ten 
inches is cut off and carried to the place where it is to be set, 
and is planted immediately. Roots from vine cuttings are seldom 
troubled with black-rot and for this reason the potatoes from 
plants set in this way are often used for bedding the next season. 

Cultivation of the sweet potato field during the growing sea- 
son should be done whenever weeds appear or a crust forms 
on the soil. Shallow cultivation is best. 

121. Harvesting and storing. — The time of harvesting 
depends on the demands of the market. In trucking regions, 



212 Effective Farming 

if the price is high in late summer or early fall, the roots are 
often dug before the vines have finished growing. The bulk 
of the crop is not dug, however, until the roots are mature. 
A way to determine this is to examine cut surfaces on them. 
If a cut in a root becomes discolored, it is a sign that the root is 
immature ; a cut on a mature root heals with a whitish cover- 
ing. Most of the crop is dug about the time of the first fall 
frost, which is usually about four and one-half months after 
planting. 

Before the roots are dug, the long ends of the vines must 
be removed. A plow with a rolling colter is often used to cut 
them off. The roots are then turned out with a plow. Some 
growers use special plows fitted with two rolling colters, one 
on each side of the beam. With one of these the row can be 
dug without first plowing to cut off the vines. 

One-fifth of the sweet potato crop of the Southern States — 
10,000,000 bushels of the average crop of 50,000,000 — is lost 
annually by decay. Careless handhng at harvest time and 
improper storage cause almost the entire loss. Two things 
are essential in the storeroom — good insulation and provision 
for thorough ventilation. 

Storage houses may be built of wood, brick, cement, or stone. 
Wooden houses are preferable, because they are cheaper and 
easier to keep dry. It is difficult to keep moisture from col- 
lecting on the walls of a cement, stone, or brick house. The 
house should be built on posts or piers, so as to allow a circu- 
lation of air under it. The " dugout," or a house built partly 
under ground, fails because it is practically impossible to keep 
this type of house dry, and moisture in the storage house will 
cause the potatoes to rot. The sills should be placed on posts 
or pillars twelve to fifteen inches from the ground, or just high 
enough so that a wagon bed will be on a level with the floor of 
the house. 

On many farms in the South there are buildings, such as 
abandoned tenant houses, that could be converted into sweet 



Potatoes 213 

potato storage houses at very little expense. These houses 
will usually need to be ceiled on the inside. For this purpose 
two-inch by four-inch scantlings should be set against the wall 
and covered with building paper and then a layer of matched 
lumber. The windows and doors should be made tight and 
ventilators put in where needed. 

122. Pests of the sweet potato. — Few insects are trouble- 
some to sweet potatoes. 

The root-borer is sometimes destructive in Texas and Louisi- 
ana. This insect bores into the roots and injures them. The 
treatment is to avoid storing or bedding infested roots. 

Black rot is the most serious disease of the crop. Black 
spots appear on affected roots which soon rot. To combat 
this disease care should be taken not to bed infested roots and 
not to plant slips that show dark spots on their stems. As 
stated previously roots from plants propagated by vine cut- 
tings are likely to be free from the rot and are the best kind to 
use for bedding. The organism of the disease is carried over 
in the soil and for this reason it is well to plant some crop other 
than sweet potatoes for a few years on land from which a 
badly infested crop has been harvested. Several other rots 
attack sweet potatoes, but the remedies are the same as for 
black-rot. Proper storage aids in combating the rots. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare the average yield and possible yield of white potatoes 
in the United States. 

2. What kind of soil is best for white potatoes ? 

3. What size seed pieces of white potatoes seem to give best re- 
sults ? 

4. Why is rather deep planting usually advised for white potatoes? 

5. Give the life history of the Colorado potato-beetle and state 
the method of control for this pest. 

6. How are early bhght, late blight, and scab combated? 

7. What kind of soil is best for sweet potatoes? 

8. What general formula is employed in fertilizing land for sweet 
potatoes ? 



214 Effective Farming 

9. Why should sweet potatoes not follow sweet potatoes on the 
same piece of ground? 

10. Describe the methods of propagating sweet potatoes. 

11. How can you tell when a sweet potato root is mature? 



EXERCISES 

1. Size of white potato seed pieces. — Plan and carry out a plot 
experiment with white potatoes using seed pieces of different sizes. 
Also, plan one comparing whole and cut seed pieces. 

2. Treatment for scab. — Treat seed potatoes for scab before 
planting them as directed in the chapter. Use both methods and com- 
pare results. Always plant a small plot with potatoes that have not 
been treated in order that the results of the treatment may be known. 
Treat quantities of the tubers for farmer patrons of the school. 

3. Spraying of white potatoes. — In a portion of white-potato field 
spray an area every two weeks during the summer with bordeaux 
mixture and arsenate of lead and leave an equal area unsprayed. At 
harvest time compare results. Bordeaux mixture is made of copper 
sulfate, quick-lime, and water. The quantities of copper sulfate and 
lime to use vary somewhat according to the kind of plant to be sprayed. 
For white potatoes a satisfactory formula to use is : 

Copper sulfate 5 lb. 

Quick-lime 6 lb. 

Water 50 gal. 

This is known as the 5-6-50 formula. 

To make fifty gallons of the bordeaux mixture, dissolve the copper 
sulfate in twenty-five gallons of water and in a separate vessel slake 
the lime and dilute it to twenty-five gallons. Pour the two solutions 
simultaneously through a brass wire strainer into the spray tank. The 
arsenate of lead, three pounds of the paste form, should be thinned 
with water and poured into the tank. 

4. Fertilizer experiment with white potatoes. — In rows across 
a field to be planted to white potatoes try different quantities of ferti- 
lizer. For example, in one row use the kind of fertilizer being used on 
the field at the rate of one ton to the acre ; on a second row use it at 
the rate of one thousand pounds to the acre ; on a third row use it at the 
rate of five hundred pounds to the acre ; leave a row without any 
fertilizer as a check. At harvest time compare the yields of the differ- 
ent rows. 



Potatoes 215 

5. Propagation of sweet potatoes. — If possible to do so arrange a 
hot-bed and sprout sweet potatoes as directed in the chapter. If this 
work cannot be done at the school-house the pupils should, if living in a 
region where sweet potatoes are an important crop, take part in the 
work on some farm in the neighborhood. 

Propagate a few sweet potato plants by means of vine cuttings as 
directed in the chapter. 

6. Comparison of propagation of white and of sweet potatoes. — 
Place both tubers of white potatoes and roots of sweet potatoes in moist 
sphagnum moss and keep in a warm, dark place where they will sprout, 
and study the origin of the sprouts of both. 



REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 519- 

528 ; 613-623. The Macmillan Co. 
Grubb, Eugene H., and Guilford, W. S., The Potato. Doubleday, 

Page and Co. 
Pink, J., Potatoes : How to Grow and Shoiv Them. D. Van Nostrand 

Co. 
Gilbert, Arthur W., The Potato. The Macmillan Co. 
Farmers' Bulletin 533, Good Seed Potatoes and How to Produce Them. 
Farmers' Bulletin 35, Potato Culture. 

Farmers' Bulletin 91, Potato Diseases and Their Treatment. 
Farmers' Bulletin 847, Potato Storage and Storage Houses. 
Farmers' Bulletin 544, Potato-tuber Diseases. 
Farmers' Bulletin 324, Sweet Potatoes. 
Farmers' Bulletin 714, Sweet Potato Diseases. 
Farmers' Bulletin 548, Storing and Marketing Sweet Potatoes. 



CHAPTER XI 
SUGAR-CANE, COTTON, AND TOBACCO 

Sugar-cane 

Distribution and characteristics. 

Uses. 

Soils and fertilizers. 

Cultural methods. 

Harvesting. 

Pests of sugar-cane. 

Cane-borer, root disease, red-cane. 

Cott07l 

The cotton plant. 
Types of cotton. 
Uses of cotton. 
Soils and fertilizers. 
Rotations with cotton. 
Cultural methods. 

Plowing. 

Ridging the land. 

Date of planting. 

Planting the seed. 

Cultivating the field. 
Harvesting the crop. 
Pests of cotton. 

Boll-weevil, boll-worm, cotton-wilt, root-rot. 

Tobacco 
Tobacco-growing districts. 
Classes of tobacco. 

Methods of securing tobacco seedlings. 
Cultural methods. 
Harvesting and curing. 

The three crops considered in this chapter are essentially 
southern, although tobacco is grown in quantity as far north 
as Wisconsin and Connecticut. They are '' money crops," 

216 



Sugar-cane, Cotton, and Tobacco 217 

the product being staple and having a definite quotation in the 
market. The cane supphes much of the sugar (the remainder 
coming from sugar-beets) and its culture is a large industry in 
the far South. It is a tall, large-leaved grass, with a juice in the 
stalks that, when squeezed out and boiled to the proper con- 
sistency makes the sugar and molasses of commerce. 

Cotton is the greatest crop of the South. Fields of this 
shrub-like plant are everywhere in the regions warm enough 
to grow the plants, which is from southern Virginia south- 
ward. Farm rents are paid in bales of cotton rather than in 
money and in every town in the cotton-belt dealers are on 
hand at all times to buy the product. As will be learned, the 
cotton fiber makes most of the thread and light cloth used by 
mankind. The seeds, also, are of much importance. The oil 
and the meal derived from the seeds are staple articles of com- 
merce. The oil made up to the consistency of lard is fast 
taking the place of that commodity. It is asserted that South 
Carolina produces more shortening than the hog-producing 
state of Iowa. 

Tobacco is a native of America. In some regions its value 
to the farmer is very large. Companies capitalized at millions 
of dollars control the output and the trade in the products is 
extremely large. 

These three crops have little in common so far as culture and 
handling are concerned, but as they are distinctive parts of 
southern agriculture they may be considered together. 

SUGAR-CANE 

123. Distribution and characteristics. — Sugar-cane be- 
longs to the grass family. It has a tall, jointed stem with 
leaves at each node and several stalks grow in a cluster from 
the central stalk, as shown in Fig. 94. Sugar and sirup are 
made from the juice of the stem. The plant is a perennial 
and in tropical countries crops can be cut for several years 
before the field needs to be replanted. However, in Louisiana 



218 



Effective Farming 




Sugar-cane, Cotton, and Tobacco 219 

and Texas, where most of the crop of the United States is 
grown, only two or three crops are cut before the field becomes 
unprofitable. In sections farther north often only one crop 
can be secured. 

Cuba, Java, Hawaii, United States, and Porto Rico are the 
chief countries that produce sugar-cane. 

124. Uses. — Sugar is the chief product from cane. It 
can be made only from fully ripened stalks, thus limiting the 
production to regions where early frosts do not occur. Sirup 
can be made from rather immature cane and in sections where 
early frosts do occur sirup is manufactured. This is not the 
same as molasses, but is made by boiling the juice of the im- 
mature cane, while molasses is a by-product of the manufac- 
ture of sugar. 

In addition to the manufacture of sugar, molasses, and sirup, 
cane has a few other uses. The tops and green leaves are fed 
to live-stock ; the crushed stalks are used for silage and fuel, 
and the making of paper. 

125. Soils and fertilizers. — One of the first requirements 
for sugar-cane is a plentiful supply of water in the soil through- 
out the whole growing season. The plant with its number of 
broad leaves presents a large area of leaf surface from which 
much moisture is sent into the air by transpiration. 

Soils for cane should be fertile and rich in humus. In hilly 
regions, well drained alluvial bottom lands are very satisfac- 
tory. 

Commercial fertilizer is used profitably in growing cane. 
Abundant fertilizer is needed in Louisiana, because the tops and 
leaves of the cane are burned each year. If this material were 
plowed under, it would return plant-food and humus to the 
soil; nevertheless the burning is considered the better prac- 
tice, because the fire destroys many cane-borers, a serious pest 
of the crop and, in addition, gets rid of much undecayed organic 
matter that would hamper the cultivation of the ground. 
Also the soil with the litter removed will dry out rapidly in 



220 Effective Farming 

the spring, which is an especial advantage. Nitrogen is needed 
on most soils that are planted to cane. One way to secure this 
food is to use cowpeas or other legumes as green-manure every 
third or fourth year. Another way is to use commercial fertilizer 
rich in nitrogen. In Louisiana 350 pounds of nitrate of soda 
an acre or its equivalent in plant-food from dried blood, tank- 
age, or cottonseed meal, has been used with good results. 
Phosphoric acid is also needed on most of the soils. It is gen- 
erally supplied in the form of acid-phosphate at the rate of 
about 250 pounds an acre. Potash is not usually needed in 
Louisiana and Texas. 

The Government recommends, as a result of experiments, 
the following fertilizers for the sandy pine lands as found in 
the southern part of Georgia : 

When the cane was not preceded by a soil-improving crop : 

300 pounds, nitrate of soda 
100 pounds, cottonseed meal 
600 pounds, high-grade acid-phosphate 
100 pounds, sulfate or murate of potash 
1100 pounds, total to the acre. 

When the cane was preceded by a crop of velvet beans that 
were plowed under : 

100 pounds, nitrate of soda 
1100 pounds, high-grade acid-phosphate 

100 pounds, murate of potash 
1300 pounds, total to the acre. 

In Louisiana and Texas and also in the Southeast, part of 
the commercial fertilizer is usually applied before the planting 
and a part after the plants start growth. 

126. Cultural methods. — Cane in Louisiana is planted on 
top of beds five to seven feet wide. These beds are necessary 
to insure drainage. The land is plowed in the fall and the 
beds formed about a month later. In the growing season they 
are kept high and the furrows between them are kept open. 

Planting starts early in the fall and continues until Novem- 



Sugar-cane, Cotton, and Tobacco 221 

ber, when men are needed to harvest the cane from other 
fields. Any area not planted in the fall is planted in February 
or March. The cane used for the later planting must have 
been protected during the winter by a covering of soil. A 
furrow shallower than the water-furrow is made in the top of 
each bed with a double moldboard plow. In this furrow is 
placed a double row of the stripped cane stalks, which are later 
covered with soil by means of a disc cultivator. Cane planted 
in the fall is covered rather deeply as a means of protection 
from freezing and in the spring the top part of the bed is re- 
moved with a hoe. 

The methods of planting in the pine-belt east of the Missis- 
sippi differ somewhat from those in Louisiana. Beds five to 
six feet wide a.re made and commercial fertilizer placed in the 
water-furrow. The cane is later planted in this furrow, but 
before this is done a plow is run through the furrow to mix 
the fertilizer with the soil to prevent the eyes of the seed-cane 
from being injured by the fertilizer. A single row of cane is 
planted in the furrow and a bed formed above it. The canes 
are covered deep and later a part of the soil is removed. Ex- 
cept in parts of Florida, where fall-planting is sometimes prac- 
ticed, most of the planting east of the Mississippi is done early 
in March. 

Frequent cultivations and an occasional hoeing during the 
growing season up to the time the cane shades the land enough 
to keep down the weeds are necessary to insure a good growth. 
In Louisiana the water-furrow must be kept open and the bed 
kept at a good height to provide drainage. In the pine lands 
of the Southeast it is not necessary to keep the beds so high. 

127. Harvesting. — In the harvesting of cane to be used 
for sugar or sirup, the leaves must be stripped from the stalk 
and the top removed. Stripping and topping are usually done 
when the plants are standing in the field, but in the more 
northern regions, where sirup is the product, the expectation 
of an early frost often causes the planters to have the stalks 



222 Effective Farming 

cut before they are stripped and topped. They are piled and 
stripped, and topped later. After the leaves and tops are 
stripped, the canes are hauled to the mills and their juice made 
into sugar or sirup. 

128. Pests of sugar-cane. — Only a few insects and diseases 
attack the sugar-cane. 

Cane-horer. — The chief insect enemy of sugar-cane in Louis- 
iana is the cane-borer. This borer is the larva of a moth and 
injures the cane by boring into it. The remedy is to burn the 
tops and the leaves of the cane as previously described. 

Root disease is sometimes troublesome in cane. It is caused 
by a fungus that lives over from year to year in the soil or in 
diseased plants. Burning the cane litter and planting canes 
free from the disease are preventive measures. 

Red-cane, — A discoloration of the interior of the stem occurs 
if cuts and bruises are made on the outside. If injured canes 
are planted, the disease may be harmful. 

COTTON 

129. The cotton plant. — The fibers of cotton make a large 
part of the thread and cloth used by mankind and, in addition, 
the seeds are valuable in many ways. Cotton is grown m 
warm climates. The southern part of the United States pro- 
duces about three-fourths of the world's cotton crop. It is 
also grown to a limited extent in southern California. India 
and Egypt follow the United States with considerably smaller 
productions. 

The plants vary in height from low-growing shrubs to trees 
twenty feet high. In the South the commercial variety is the 
product of plants averaging from two to six feet high. The 
tree form grows only in tropical countries and is not commer- 
cially important. In such regions the plant is a perennial, 
but in this country it is grown as an annual. The plant has 
an erect stem with several branches (Fig. 95). The root- 
system consists of a tap-root with several branching roots 



Sugar-cane, Cotton, and Tobacco 



223 



growing from it within three or four inches of the ground. 
Cotton is really a shallow feeder. The plant is somewhat 
cone-shaped, the lower branches being the longest and the 
length decreasing toward the top. Two kinds of branches, 




Fig. 95. — Cotton plant. 

known as vegetative and fruiting, are found on the plants. 
The vegetative branches have many leaves and do not usually 
produce many bolls. The fruiting branches have few leaves 
and produce most of the bolls. 



224 Effective Farming 

The stems are covered with a fairly tough bark and the in- 
side is brittle ; consequently after the crop has been harvested, 
the old plants can be broken down readily. The leaves are 
arranged alternately and are usually three-lobed, although they 
vary in shape in different varieties and often on the same plant. 

The flowers are large and are attached to the stems by short 
branches. In the upland varieties, the blossom is white or 
pale cream on the first morning and changes to a pink or red 
on the second day. The petals fall on the third or fourth day. 
In the sea-island varieties, the blossom the first morning is 
yellow with a purple-red spot at the base of each petal. The 
flowers of cotton have five large petals and five inconspicuous 
sepals. The base of the flower is surrounded by three to five 
fringed bracts. The unopened buds inclosed by the bracts 
make up the so-called " square " of cotton. After the petals 
faU there remains an enlarged base of the pistil surrounded 
by the bracts. The enlarged pistil is the seed-pod. As this 
develops the bracts fold backward and the divisions, or locks, 
separate, exposing the white, fluffy mass of fiber and seeds. 
The pistil is divided into three to six parts and the number is 
the same as that of locks of seed cotton that develop in the boll. 

The single fibers of cotton are very small. Each is an elon- 
gated, twisted tube. The twists in a fiber are what cause 
threads to hold together when the cotton is spun into yarn. 
Because it will make a stronger yarn, cotton with a large num- 
ber of twists in the fiber is more valuable than that with a 
comparatively few twists. Maturity of fiber is of importance, 
as immature fibers have but a few twists and thus make weak 
threads. For this reason cotton should not be picked until 
the bolls are well opened and mature. The length of the fiber 
also determines its value, a long fiber being more valuable 
than a short one. 

130. Types of cotton. — The most important type of cotton 
grown in the United States is the American upland, which is 
of two classes, the short-staple and the long-staple. In the 



Sugar-cane^ Cotton, and Tobacco 225 

short-staple, the different fibers vary in length from three- 
quarters of an inch to one and one-eighth inches and in the 
long staple from one and one-quarter inches to one and five- 
eighths inches. Long-staple cotton is of much more value 
than short-staple, but usually the acre yield is less. A large 
proportion of the upland cotton grown in the United States is 
short-staple, but of recent years improvement has been made 
in varieties by careful seed selection and larger acreages of 
long-staple are being grown. 

The other type is sea-island cotton. The lint is much longer 
than that of long-stapled upland, the usual length being from 
one and one-half to two inches. The yarn from these fibers 
is used in making the finest fabrics. The price is much higher 
than for upland cotton, but the acre yield is less and it is more 
difficult to pick and gin. This type can be grown only where 
the climate is even and moist and where there is no danger 
from frost. The areas in the United States where it is pro- 
duced are along the coast and on nearby islands of South Car- 
ohna, Georgia, and Florida. 

131. Uses of cotton. — The principal use of cotton is for 
making thread and cloth. The seeds are, however, of consid- 
erable value. They are sometimes used as fertilizer by the 
southern planters, but this practice is much less common than 
formerly. The seeds now are usually sold to the oil mills, 
where the oil they contain is extracted and refined. Cotton- 
seed oil is used as a substitute for ohve oil and for making 
soap and lard substitute. The portion of the seed that is left 
is valuable as a dairy feed. It is high in protein and is one of 
the chief products used by dairymen to increase the protein- 
content of the rations fed to the cattle. It is also valuable as 
fertilizer. Before extracting the oil, the hulls are removed. 
These are used by some southern planters as dairy feed. They 
contain, however, chiefly cellulose and thus their chief value is 
to furnish bulk to the ration. They are sometimes used as a 
fertilizer, but for this purpose are of no considerable value. 

Q 



226 Effective Farming 

132. Soils and fertilizers. — Cotton will grow on almost 
any soil from a light sand to a heavy clay. Light soils are not 
especially good for this crop, because of injury from cotton 
rust that is likely to occur. Nevertheless, they are often 
planted and yield good crops. Loamy soils or clays are better. 
The soil must not be too rich for there is likely to be an exces- 
sive stalk development at the expense of the bolls. 

The South has found the use of fertilizer for cotton to be 
profitable. The experiment stations have done much toward 
determining the best fertilizer for cotton lands of their states 
and the results of the determinations are recorded in bulletins 
that are sent free to the residents of the state on application. 
Farmers should take advantage of these publications. 

C. B. Wilhams, agronomist, North Carolina Experiment 
Station has made an extensive study of the fertilizer require- 
ment for cotton-growing on both the Coastal Plain and the 
Piedmont Plateau soils of the South and makes the following 
recomnlendations : 

For the Coastal Plain soils, six hundred to eight hundred 
pounds or more to the acre of one of the following mixtures 
should be used. 

No. 1. Pounds 

Acid-phosphate, 16 per cent phosphoric acid 300 

Cottonseed meal, 6.17 per cent nitrogen, 2.8 per cent phos- 
phoric acid, and 1.8 per cent potash 1400 

Kainit, 12 per cent potash 300 

2000 

This mixture will contain: Available phosphoric acid, 4.4 per 
cent ; potash, 3.1 per cent ; nitrogen, 4.3 per cent (equal to ammonia, 
5.2 per cent). 

No. 2. Pounds 

Acid-phosphate, 16 per cent phosphoric acid 460 

Cottonseed meal, 6.17 per cent nitrogen, 2.8 per cent phos- 
phoric acid, and 1.8 per cent potash 770 

Nitrate of soda, 15 per cent nitrogen 320 

Kainit, 12 per cent potash .450 

2000 



Sugar-cane, Cotton, and Tobacco 227 

In this formula one-half of the nitrogen is supplied by nitrate of 
soda, and the other one-half b^- cottonseed meal. This mixture 
will contain : available phosphoric acid, 4.8 per cent ; potash, 3.4 per 
cent; nitrogen, 4.8 per cent (equal to ammonia, 5.8 per cent). 

No. 3. Pounds 

Acid-phosphate, 16 per cent phosphoric acid 330 

Cottonseed meal, 6.17 per cent nitrogen, 2.8 per cent phos- 
phoric acid, and 1.8 per cent potash 1590 

Muriate of potash, 50 per cent potash 80 

2000 

This mixture will contain : available phosphoric acid, 4.9 per cent ; 
potash, 3.4 per cent ; nitrogen, 4.9 per cent (equal to ammonia, 6 per 
cent). 

For the Piedmont Plateau soils, the same quantity of one 
of the mixtures listed below should be used. 

No. 1. Pounds 

Acid-phosphate, 16 per cent phosphoric acid 1125 

Cottonseed meal, 6.17 per cent nitrogen, 2.8 per cent phos- 
phoric acid, and 1.8 per cent potash 640 

Kainit, 12 per cent potash 235 

2000 

This mixture will contain : available phosphoric acid, 9.9 per cent ; 
potash, 2 per cent ; nitrogen, 2 per cent (equal to ammonia, 2.4 per 
cent). 

No. 2. Pounds 

Acid-phosphate, 16 per cent phosphoric acid 1235 

Cottonseed meal, 6.17 per cent nitrogen, 2.8 per cent phos- 
phoric acid, and 1.8 per cent potash 700 

Muriate of potash, 50 per cent potash 65 

2000 

This mixture will contain : available phosphoric acid, 10.9 per cent ; 
potash, 2.3 per cent ; nitrogen, 2.2 per cent (equal to ammonia, 2.7 
per cent). 

133. Rotations with cotton. — Leguminous crops grown 
either as green-manure or as forage crops in rotation with 
cotton are especially useful in keeping up the plant-food and 



228 Effective Farming 

humus supply of the soils of the South. Where cotton is 
grown in rotation with other crops and legumes are made 
a part of the rotation, a very good soil condition is ob- 
tained. C. B. Williams advises the following rotations for 
North Carolina. 

For the Coastal Plain : 

First year. — Cotton. 

Second year. — Rye or oats, followed by cowpeas or soybeans to be 

plowed into the soil. 
Third year. — Corn, with cowpeas ; or 
First year. — Cotton, with crimson clover sown broadcast after the 

first picking. 
Second year. — Corn, with cowpeas. 
Third year. — Small grain followed by cowpeas or soybeans. 

For the Piedmont Plateau : 

First year. — Cotton, with rye sown after the first picking. 

Second year. — Corn, with cowpeas. 

Third year. — Wheat sown the previous fall, and red clover sown on the 

wheat during the early spring. 
Fourth year. — Red clover. 

134. Cultural methods. — Cotton is very often planted on 
land that has been in cotton the previous year. The first 
step in preparing for another crop is to break down the old 
stalks and chop them into pieces that can be turned under by 
means of a plow. An implement known as a stalk-cutter is 
useful for this purpose. When a stalk-cutter is not available, 
the stalks are generally beaten down with a stick. Where 
the cotton boll-weevil is prevalent, it is often necessary to 
burn the old stalks. This is done in the early fall before the 
weevils hibernate for the winter. The stalks should be turned 
under when possible, as they add humus to the soil. 

Plowing. — Most of the fields for cotton are plowed in Feb- 
ruary and March. Some growers plow as early as November 
or December ; others just previous to planting, which date 
varies according to the locality. Late plowing is not advised. 



Sugar-cane, Cotton, and Tobacco 229 

Early plowing on clay soils is an advantage, as the freezing in 
winter aids in pulverizing the soil. If the land becomes too 
compact before planting time, it should be plowed again or 
disked. 8andy land should not, as a rule, be plowed too early 
on account of the tendency of plant-food to leach away. All 
fall-plowed land should have a cover-crop to prevent the loss 
of fertility by leaching and washing. This land should be 
plowed again in the early spring ; this gives the green plants 
time to decay somewhat before the cotton is planted. Deep 
plowing is advised as it gives more room for the roots. If, 
however, the land has always been plowed shallow, the depth 
should be increased gradually, because too much subsoil thrown 
up by the plow is a disadvantage. 

Ridging the land. — Fields to be planted to cotton are usually 
ridged, four or more furrow slices made with a one-horse plow 
being thrown together to form a bed three or four feet wide 
and several inches higher than the furrow between them. 
If fertilizer is to be used, a furrow is plowed in the middle of 
the space where the bed will be made and the fertilizer placed 
in it. Later the ridge is made and the seed planted in a row 
above the fertilizer. 

Date of ^planting. — The time of planting is controlled largely 
by the usual date of the last killing frost in the region. As 
this date varies in different sections, the time of planting 
cotton also varies. In the northern part of the cotton-belt, 
planting is often not done until May. In the southern part 
it is generally begun in March. 

Planting the seed. — Most of the cotton is planted with a 
one-horse planter (Fig. 208). The usual depth of planting is 
from one to three inches ; on cloddy, dry soils the depth is 
deeper than in well prepared moist soils. From a bushel to 
a bushel and a half of seed an acre is usually sown. If the 
seeds all sprout, this provides too many plants, but the sur- 
plus are later hoed, or '^ chopped," out. The plants are left 
from twelve to sixteen inches apart in the row after thinning. 



230 Effective Farming 

Cultivating the field. — When the plants are a few inches 
high, they should be cultivated with a harrow or weeder. 
From four to six cultivations and two or more hoeings should 
be given a field during the growing season. A good rule to 
follow is to cultivate after each rain before a crust has formed. 
Shallow cultivation, especially after the plants have attained 
some size, is advised, because the branching roots of the cot- 
ton plant do not go deep into the soil. 

135. Harvesting the crop. — Most cotton is picked by hand. 
Several mechanical pickers are on the market, but they are 
not entirely satisfactory. The picking is one of the most ex- 
pensive operations in cotton culture. Fig. 96 shows a field 
of cotton ready to be picked. Following the picking the cot- 
ton is ginned — that is, the seeds are removed. The cotton- 
gin separates the seed from the fiber, or lint, by means of saw- 
like wheels. The lint after the removal of the seeds is packed 
by hydraulic pressure into bales of about five hundred pounds 
in weight. Tt is then ready for sale. 

136. Pests of cotton. — The boll-weevil and the boll-worm 
are the two most troublesome insect pests of cotton, and cotton- 
wilt and root-rot are the two most troublesome diseases. Only 
brief mention can be made here of these pests. For a full dis- 
cussion see the publications on the subject sent out by the 
United States Department of Agriculture and the experiment 
stations of the Southern States. 

Boll-weevil. — The adult weevil is a grayish insect about one- 
third of an inch long with a snout about half as long as its 
body. The female lays its eggs in the bracts and the immature 
bolls. The larvae eat into the boll and destroy its center. 
The methods of combating the pests are preventive. The 
weevils are most numerous late in the season. For this rea- 
son an early crop is desired. To attain this end, warm, early 
soils are selected as the areas to be planted to cotton, early 
varieties are chosen and planted as soon as the weather permits, 
and the ground is well fertilized and cultivated frequently. 



Sugar-cane, Cotton, and Tobacco 



231 




232 Effective Farming 

In the spring fallen squares which contain larvae are picked 
up and burned. In the fall the stalks of the cotton are burned 
or plowed under to kill as many weevils as possible before they 
hibernate. 

Boll-worm. — The same insect as the corn ear-worm pre- 
viously described when found on cotton is known as the boll- 
worm. The females lay eggs on all parts of the cotton plant, 
but more especially on the leaves. The larvae that hatch 
eat at first into the tender buds and the surface tissue of the 
leaves. At this stage they can be poisoned, but this practice 
has not been found very practicable. Preventive measures 
are better. As the worms become older, they cut into the boll 
and destroy its contents. When they become full size, they 
drop to the ground and usually burrow to a depth of two or 
three inches, where they remain during the pupal stage. From 
the pupa the moth emerges. 

The preventive measure usually followed is to plant trap 
crops of corn, one about the first of June and the other two 
weeks later. This will bring the corn into the roasting ear 
stage during the first weeks of August. The moths prefer 
corn in the roasting ear stage to cotton ; consequently they 
will deposit their eggs on the corn rather than on the cotton 
and thus the latter will not suffer much from the ravages of 
the larvae. The trap crops of corn are often planted in oat 
fields near the cotton or two or three rows of corn are planted 
in the cotton fields, alternating with thirty or forty rows of 
cotton. 

Another preventive measure is late fall or early winter 
plowing. This destroys the burrows of the insects and upturns 
many of the pupa to the cold weather of winter. 

Cotton-wilt. — This is a very troublesome disease, especially 
on some soils. It occurs any time after the plants are about 
six inches high. The plants suddenty wilt and usually die 
in a few days. To plant no cotton on the ground for three 
years and to use wilt-resistant varieties will sometimes prove 



Sugar-cane, Cotton', and Tobacco 233 

successful in combating the disease. Planting a grain crop 
on the ground in the fall and following the next year with a 
crop of cowpeas of the iron variety is a method used by some 
farmers to prevent the disease. 

Root-rot. — The plants affected with rot wilt suddenly and 
later die. Deep fall plowing and the growing of some other crop 
on the land for a few years are of use in fighting the disease. 
In choosing a crop in place of the cotton, the planters must 
avoid sweet potatoes and alfalfa, which are also attacked by 
root-rot. 

TOBACCO 

137. Tobacco-growing districts. — The tobacco plant may 
be grown successfully in all latitudes of the United States and 
on a great variety of soils. But the value of the crop is influ- 
enced so much by the climatic and soil conditions under which 
it is grown that the industry has become specialized in certain 
districts and it is there that the trade seeks the product. Each 
special district produces a certain type of tobacco and the 
methods of growing and handling the crop vary according to 
the type of leaf that it is desired to produce. General cultural 
methods are, however, somewhat similar. 

138. Classes of tobacco. — Three general classes of tobacco 
are grown, (1) cigar tobaccos, (2) export tobaccos, and (3) 
manufacturing tobaccos. Cigar tobaccos are those to be 
made into cigars, export tobaccos are those to be sent abroad, 
and manufacturing tobaccos are those to be used in the making 
of products other than cigars. Each of the general classes may 
be subdivided into types. For example, cigar tobaccos may 
be wrapper leaf, binder leaf, or filler leaf. In export and manu- 
facturing tobaccos are such types as flue-cured, Virginias un- 
cured, and white burley. Each of the different types is pro- 
duced on a special kind of soil and according to different methods 
of curing and handling. Cigar tobaccos are grown chiefly 
in certain sections in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin, Florida, Georgia, and Texas. 



234 Effecti'^e Farming 

Export and manufacturing tobaccos are grown chiefly in sec- 
tions in Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Virginia, Indiana, South 
CaroUna, North Carohna, and Louisiana. 

139. Methods of securing tobacco seedlings. — The seeds 
of tobacco are very small and are planted in hot-beds or cold- 
frames. On reaching a certain size, the seedlings are trans- 
planted to the field by hand or by a transplanting machine. 
The ground where the seed-bed is to be situated is usually 
sterilized to kill weed seeds and disease spores. This is most 
commonly accomplished by means of steam. Steam from a 
portable boiler is forced into an inverted metal box placed 
over the soil of the seed-bed until the soil at a depth of 
four inches is at a temperature of 175° F. After an hour the 
metal box is removed and the process repeated on another 
section of the soil. 

The rate of seeding in the bed varies in different sections of 
the country. A teaspoonful of seed to one hundred square 
feet of bed is about the average, although some growers sow 
this quantity on two hundred square feet. In order to secure 
an even distribution, the seed is mixed with two quarts of land- 
plaster, bone-meal, or finely sifted wood-ashes. The seeds 
are covered by pressing them into the soil with a plank or a 
roller. After sowing the seed, the beds are covered with cheese- 
cloth or glass. The soil is watered frequently, but it must not 
be kept too wet. Ventilation in the bed is necessary and the 
temperature must not get high enough to burn the plants. 

140. Cultural methods. — The field where the plants are 
to be set must be put into good physical condition. The 
methods of fertilizing the soil vary in the different sections 
and with the type of tobacco grown. The spacing of the 
plants in the fields varies with the type of tobacco, ranging 
from rows thirty-four to forty inches apart with plants four- 
teen to twenty-eight inches apart in the rows. In some sec- 
tions the plants are grown in hills varying from thirty-two to 
thirty-six inches apart each way. 



Sugar-cane, Cotton, and Tobacco 235 

The field is cultivated frequently during the growing season, 
beginning soon after the plants are set and continuing until 
they become too large for the cultivators to be pulled between 
the rows. 

Topping the plants is a method practiced in tobacco 
culture. This consists in removing the flower-buds and a 
portion of the top. The nourishment that would be used to 
develop these parts is sent into the leaves and causes a better 




Fig. 97. — Field of tobacco. 

development of leaf, which is the valuable part of the plant. 
After the plants have been topped, they send out suckers from 
the axils of the leaves ; if these were allowed to grow they 
would rob the leaves on the main stalk of fertility. To offset 
this the suckers when about two inches long are removed 
(Fig. 97). 

141. Harvesting and curing. — Tobacco is harvested either 
by cutting off the whole plant or by removing the leaves as 
they ripen; not all ripen at the same time. In the former 
method the stalks are cut off close to the ground as soon as 



236 



Effective Farming 



the middle leaves turn light green. The plants are carefully 
laid on the ground where they remain until the leaves have 
wilted enough to avoid much breaking when handled. Each 
plant is then hung on a four-foot lath by piercing it near the 
base with a steel point attached to the end of the lath (Fig. 
98). Usually six plants are placed on a lath and these are 
hung on racks on the wagon and hauled to the curing barn. 
They are hung in tiers with a space of six to twelve inches be- 
tween the laths. When harvesting by the second method, the 







Fig. 98. — - Harvesting tobacco by cutting the stalk, showing method of 
spearing the plant on the stick. 



leaves as they ripen are picked from the plants, five pickings 
usually being made. The leaves are laid in the spaces between 
the rows and later carried to the curing barn where they are 
strung on cords attached to four-foot laths. These laths with 
the plants are hung in the barn where the leaves cure. 

The method of curing varies with the type of tobacco. In 
the air-cured method the barn is provided with ventilators 
which are opened to secure ventilation and the tobacco is 
then subjected to a slow air curing. In the fire-cured method 
the tobacco in the barn is treated by artificial heat. 



Sugar-cane, Cotton, and Tobacco 237 



QUESTIONS 

1. What is the difference between cane sirup and molasses? 

2. Why is a plentiful supply of water necessary in soils planted 
to sugar-cane? 

3. In Louisiana why are the tops and leaves of sugar-cane that are 
left in the fields burned each year? 

4. Describe the methods employed in harvesting sugar-cane. 

5. Describe vegetative and fruiting branches of cotton. 

6. Describe the cotton blossom. 

7. What qualities determine the difference in value of the various 
lots of cotton? 

8. Tell the difference between long-staple and short-staple upland 
cotton. 

9. Why is sea-island cotton not grown on the Piedmont section 
of the South? 

10. State the uses of cotton and of cotton seed. 

11. Why should shallow cultivation be employed for cotton? 

12. What methods are used to combat the boll-weevil? the boll- 
worm? 



13. Why is tobacco not grown in more sections of the country? 

14. Define : cigar tobacco, export tobacco, and manufacturing to- 
bacco. 

15. Why is the ground sterilized where a tobacco seed-bed is to be 
planted? How is this usually done? 

16. How is an even distribution of the seed secured in the tobacco 
seed-bed ? 

17. What is meant by the topping of tobacco plants and why and 
how is this done ? Why is it necessary to sucker the plants ? 

18. Describe the two methods of harvesting tobacco. 



EXERCISES 

1. Propagation of sugar-cane. — Examine a stalk of sugar-cane 
and notice the buds at each node. Describe their size and arrange- 
ment on the stem. In the fall collect several stalks of cane. Protect 
half of them during the winter by a covering of soil and allow the other 
half to be exposed to the weather. In February or March plant some 
of each lot of cane and observe the results. Examine the buds of those 
that remain by cutting lengthwise through them. Is there a difference 
in appearance of the buds? 



238 



Effective Farming 



2. Characteristics of sugar-cane. — Secure plants, roots, and stems 
of sugar-cane, corn, wheat, and a tall-growing grass and compare them. 
To what family does sugar-cane belong? 

3. Cropping methods for sugar-cane. — Visit cane fields at the 
planting, cultivating, and harvesting seasons and write description 
of the methods followed. Visit, also, a cane mill while in operation 
and study the methods of making sugar and molasses. 

4. Characteristics of the cotton plant. — In the fall visit a cotton 
field and study the characteristics of the plants. Notice the root sys- 
tem, the kind of stem, the shape of the plant, the vegetative branches, 
the fruiting branches, the arrangement of the leaves, the shape of the 
leaves, the parts of the flowers, and the shape of the bolls (bolls and 
flowers are in the field at the same season), the number of locks, and the 
length of the fiber. 

5. Pests of cotton. — Study the life history of the boll-weevil and 
the boll-worm and if these pests are prevalent in your vicinity, visit 
the fields to study the insects, and their work. Write to your state 
experiment station and the United States Department of Agriculture 
for publications about these insects. Follow the same plan for cotton- 
wilt and root-rot. 

6. The judging of cotton. — Using the score-card below, judge sev- 
eral samples of cotton. For complete directions concerning cotton 
judging see United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 294. 



Score-card for the Cotton Plant 





Score 


The Cotton Plant 


Per- 
fect 


Stu- 
dent's 


Cor- 
rected 


Plant, vigorous, stocky, 25 points : 

Size, medium to large as influenced by soil, location, 
season, and variety 


5 
5 
5 
5 

5 






Form, symmetrical, spreading, conical, height, and 
spread according to soil, etc 

Stalk, minimum amount of wood in proportion to 
fruit .... . 








Branches, springing from base, strong, vigorous, in 

pairs, short-jointed, inclined upward 

Head, well branched and filled, fruited uniformly . 















Sugar-cane, Cotton, and Tobacco 



239 



Score-card for the Cotton Plant {Continued) 





Score 


The Cotton Plant 


Per- 
fect 

4 

4 

4 
4 
4 
4 

12 
12 

6 
5 

5 
5 
5 

1 


Stu- 
dent's 


Cor- 
rected 


Fruiting, 24 points : 

Bolls, large, abundant, uniformly developed, plump, 
sound, firm, well rounded, apex obtuse, singly or in 
clusters 




Number of bolls, according to variety, soil, and season 






Bolls per plant, thin uplands, 10-20 ; fertile uplands, 
20-25; "bottoms," 50-100; special selection, 
100-500 






Bolls per pound of seed cotton, large, 40-60 ; me- 
dium, 60-75 ; small, 80-110 






Character of bolls, number of locks 3 to 5 ; kind of 
sepals ; retention of cotton 






Opening of bolls, uniform including top crop, classify 
as good, medium, poor 






Yield — standard 1 bale per acre, 30 points : 

Seed cotton, estimated by average plant, distance 
of planting, per cent of stand, plants per acre ; 
thin uplands, 10,000; fertile uplands, 6500; "bot- 
toms," 4500; distance of plants 3^ by \\ feet, 4| 
by li feet, 4| by 2 feet, respectively 






Per cent lint, not less than 30, standard 33 to 35 . 






Seeds, 30-50 per boll, large, plump, easily delinted, 
color, according to variety; germination not less 
than 95 per cent 






Quality and character of lint, 21 points : 

Strength, tensile strain good, even throughout length 

Length, common standards for upland, short | to 

1 inch, premium lyV to 1| inches ; long staple, ly\ 

inches and better 






Fineness, fibers soft, silky, and pliable, responsive to 
touch 






Uniformity, all fibers of equal length, strength, 
fineness 






Purity, color dead white ; fiber free from stain, dirt, 
and trash 













No. of plant Source 

Type 

Remarks on plant 

Date , 19 . . . . Name of student 



240 Effective Farming 



REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 599-611 ; 
247-258 ; 639-653. The Macmillan Co. 

Martineau, G., Sugar, Cane and Beet. Pitman Pub. Co. 

Myrick, H., American Sugar Industry. Orange Judd Co. 

Spencer, G. L., A Handbook for Cane-Sugar Manufacturers. Wiley and 
Sons. 

Duggar, J. F., Southern Field Crops. The Macmillan Co. 

U. S. Department Agricultural Bulletin 294, Lessons on Cotton for the 
Rural Common Schools. 

Farmers' Bulletin 591, The Classification and Grading of Cotton. 

Farmers' Bulletin 601, A New System of Cotton Culture and its Appli- 
cation. 

Farmers' Bulletin 787, Sea Island Cotton. 

Farmers' Bulletin 775, Losses from Selling Cotton in the Seed. 

Farmers' Bulletin 512, The Boll-Weevil Problem. 

Farmers' Bulletin 501, Cotton Improvement under Weevil Conditions. 

Farmers' Bulletin 625, Cotton Wilt and Root-knot. 

Farmers' Bulletin 555, Cotton Anthracnose. 

Farmers' Bulletin 571, Tobacco Culture. 

Farmers' Bulletin 523, Tobacco Curing. 



CHAPTER XII 

FRUIT-GROWING 

Classification of fruits. 
Soils for fruits. 
Air drainage in fruit-culture. 
Pruning of fruit-trees. 

Need for pruning. 

Winter and summer pruning. 

Tools used for pruning. 

How to remove a branch. 
Spraying of fruit-trees. 

Materials used for spraying. 

Equipment for spraying. 

Spray schedules. 
Cultural methods. 

Time for planting. 

Distances for planting. 

Systems of planting. 

Trimming the nursery trees. 

Preparation of the soil. 

Clean cultivation and sod culture. 
Harvesting of fruit. 
Pests of fruit plants. 

San Jose scale, codlin-moth, apple-tree tent-caterpillar, plant- 
lice, leaf blister-mite, bud-moth, plum curculio, borers, 
apple-scab, bitter-rot, brown-rot, apple-blotch. 

The growing of fruit is for two purposes : to produce a supply 
for home use, and to obtain revenue from a product grown for 
market. There are so many species of fruit plants, and so 
many varieties of each fruit, that the home-maker has almost 
endless choice. The entire year can be covered in many parts 
of the country, from the last winter apple to the strawberry 
and other small-fruits, cherries, apricots, grapes, peaches, plums, 
R 241 



242 Effective Farming 

pears, and others. In warm regions, the persimmon and citrus 
fruits, and many others, are grown. The home fruit planta- 
tion should be encouraged as a source of supplies and pleasure. 
Commercial fruit-growing has now reached a great develop- 
ment in North America. This is particularly true of apples, 
peaches, and citrus fruits. Great attention has been given to 
the insects and diseases affecting the fruit crops, and also to 
methods of handling the products. As fruit-trees will continue 
to bear even under neglect, careless growers are likely to give 
little attention to them ; yet these plants respond to good care 
as readily as others, and it is only under the best conditions that 
profitable production is to be expected. 

142. Classification of fruits. — The growing of fruit is a 
very important agricultural pursuit in the United States. 
Some kind of fruit is produced on most farms and in many 
sections the growing of fruit is the chief industry. According 
to Bailey, fruits may be classified under four heads: (1) tree- 
fruits, including apples, pears, quinces, apricots, plums, cher- 
ries, nuts, figs, and olives ; (2) vine fruits, including grapes ; 
(3) small-fruits, including currants, blackberries, raspberries, 
and strawberries ; (4) herb-like fruits, including bananas 
and pineapples. 

143. Soils for fruit. — Some kinds of fruits are more exact- 
ing as to soil than others. Apples, plums, and citrus fruits 
seem to grow fairly well in most kinds of soil, although there 
is in each region where these fruits are grown a soil type that 
is best suited to each. Pears do best on clay soil and peaches 
on sandy soil. 

The drainage of land devoted to fruit-culture is very impor- 
tant ; often the reason for lack of success in this husbandry is 
poor soil drainage. The subsoil is of as much importance as 
the surface soil in determining fruit adaptation to land. A soil 
with an impervious subsoil near the surface means one with a 
shallow zone for the tree roots. Such land should not be planted 
to fruit. 



Fruit-growing 



243 



144. Air drainage in fruit-culture. — An important factor 
in fruit production is air drainage. Cold air is heavier than 
warm air and drains down hill and remains in low places, and 
these areas are more 

subject to frost than 
higher areas. Frost at 
blossoming time will 
injure the blossoms. 
Often when orchards are 
planted on hillsides, the 
blossoms on trees near 
the bottom of the hill 
will be injured by frost, 
while those higher up 
the slope will escape 
damage. Thus the se- 
lection of a site where 
late frosts seldom kill 
the blossoms is of im- 
portance. 

145. Pruning of fruit- 
trees. — A phase of 
work that must be given 
proper attention by an 
orchardist is the prun- 
ing of the trees. Prun- 
ing means the removal 
of certain branches. 
This is done in order 
to allow the remaining 
ones sufficient room and 
fight for proper develop- 
ment. Figs. 99 and 100 show a peach tree before and after 
pruning. Most trees produce too many branches. In trees 
that grow naturally, the surplus branches are crowded out by 




Fig. 



Peach tree in need of pruning. 



244 



Effective Farming 



adjacent ones — that is, nature prunes the trees. In growing 
fruit, the orchardist must do this if he is to secure the full 
benefits from his trees. 

Need for pruning. — On trees that grow very tall, it is usually 
good practice to cut back the main branches, thus giving the 

tree a more spreading 
form in order that it 
may be easily sprayed 
and cared for and the 
fruit easily gathered. 
Often pruning is done 
to lessen the ravages of 
such diseases as blight 
and canker. These dis- 
eases spread rapidly 
from branch to branch 
and from tree to tree, 
and the removal of dis- 
eased branches may pre- 
vent the spread. It 
is always good practice 
to remove and burn 
any diseased portion of 
a fruit-tree. Trees 
planted at regular dis- 
tances apart must be 
pruned or their branches 
will grow together and 
interfere with the or- 
chard operations. Also, trees like the peach, which bear fruit 
on the new wood at the outside of the tree, should be pruned 
regularly in order that the weight of the fruit be kept near the 
body and main branches. 

Winter and summer pruning. — Pruning at different seasons 
of the year has different effects on the tree. Pruning in winter 




Fig. 100. 



Same tree as shown in Fig. 99 
after pruning. 



Fruit-growing 245 

tends toward the production of branches and leaves ; pruning 
in summer, toward blossoms and fruit production. In a rightly 
pruned orchard, there is a balance between these growths. 
Excessive pruning in the winter will result in the formation of 
many water sprouts and much foliage, and the production of 
fruit will be checked. Excessive pruning in the summer will 
often diminish the wood growth too much. In practice orchard- 
ists prune their trees a little each winter, and in the summer, 
whenever they see a branch that should be removed, they cut it 
off. If a young orchard is properly pruned from the beginning, 
the trees will be kept in a good balance and the best results ob- 
tained. If pruning is neglected, poor results must be expected. 

Tools used for pruning. — Knives, shears, and saws are 
the tools used in pruning. For small trees knives and shears 
are all that are usually necessary ; for large trees saws must 
sometimes be used. Several types of saws are on the market 
and care must be taken to select a kind that will not injure 
adjacent branches. Saws with teeth on both edges of the 
blade are not satisfactory, because they are likely to saw into 
the wood of an adjacent branch. 

Hoiv to remove a branch. — When removing a branch, one 
should be sure to cut close to the parent branch. Stubs left 
on the tree are a source of injury ; the wood of the stub soon 
decays and this decay enters the tree. When pruning off a 
large limb, care should be taken to avoid splitting the limb 
to which it is attached. A cut should first be made an inch 
or so into the limb on the under side, then an incision cut 
on the upper side about an inch or so nearer the parent branch. 
The limb can then be sawed off. Without this' precaution 
the weight of the limb may cause the bark on the lower side 
to split and be carried down on the parent branch. After the 
cuts have been made in this way the wound should be trimmed 
close to the tree. All wounds except small ones should be 
painted over with white-lead paint or some wound dressing to 
stop the entrance of rot-producing organisms. 



246 



Effective Farming 



146. Spraying of fruit-trees. — Like pruning, spraying is 
an important detail of orchard management. Fruit-trees are 
subject to many insect and fungous pests and it is necessary 
to combat these successfully if profitable crops are to be pro- 
duced. 

Materials used for spraying. — Insecticides and fungicides 
are used as spray materials to fight the pests. An insecticide 
is any substance that kills insects and a fungicide is any sub- 
stance that kills 
fungi. Insecticides 
are of two general 
classes — poisonous 
and contact. The 
former contain poi- 
son and are used 
to kill insects with 
biting mouth parts. 
Those most used are 
arsenate of lead, 
paris green, arsenite 
of lime, london pur- 
ple, and hellebore. 
All these, except 
hellebore, contain 
'n some 





k 


' '^^^^^^" J^^^^^jt^ 


^ 


_ ^^^m 


^F*^ 



Fig. 101. 



Sprayed trees in same orchard as 
shown in Fig. 102. 

arsenic 

form. Hellebore is made from the roots of the white hellebore. 
A contact insecticide is a substance used to kill insects by 
coming in contact with their bodies. Insects with sucking 
mouths cannot be killed by means of poison and must, there- 
fore, be combated with contact insecticides. Plant-lice and 
the scale insects are usually killed in this way. The chief con- 
tact insecticides are boiled lime sulfur, self-boiled lime sulfur, 
miscible oils, distillate oils, kerosene emulsion, and tobacco 
preparations. 

The fungicides used in combating the fungi of fruit-trees 



Fruit-growing 



247 



are usually some solution containing copper. The chief ones 
are bordeaux mixture, ammoniacal copper carbonate, copper- 
sulfate solution, sulfur dust, potassium sulfide, boiled lime 
sulfur, and self-boiled lime sulfur. 

In addition to the insecticides and the fungicides listed, many 
proprietary preparations are on the market, a number of which 
give excellent results. As a rule, they are somewhat easier 
to prepare for use than the home-made mixtures and for this 
reason are often preferred. 

Many of the insect and fungous pests occur on the fruit-trees 
at the same time and, when the mixing will have no injurious 
effects on the trees, orchardists combine the insecticides and 
fungicides and ap- 
ply them at one 
spraying. 

Figures 101 and 
102 show the bene- 
ficial effects of 
spraying. Fig. 101 
illustrates sprayed 
trees and Fig. 102 
unsprayed trees in 
the same orchard. 
Notice the differ- 
ence in the foliage 
of the trees. 

Equipment for 




Fig. 102. 



Unsprayed trees in same orchard as 
shown in Fig. 101. 



spraying. — An or- 

chardist has his 

choice of many types of sprayers when purchasing equipment. 

The outfits range from small knapsack sprayers and barrel 

outfits to gas power outfits. Figs. 103 to 105 show various 

types of equipment for spraying. 

Spray schedules. — To be effective, spraying must be done 
thoroughly and at the life period of the insect and fungus during 



248 



Effective Farming 




Fig. 103. — Gas-engine sprayer. 




Fig. 104.— Hand-power sprayer. 



Fruit-growing 



249 




250 Effective Farming 

which they can be killed. The life histories of the pests have 
been studied by scientists and the best time to combat each of 
them has been determined. To aid the orchardist, spray 
schedules are prepared. A general schedule of sprayings for 
apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, quinces, apricots, cur- 
rants, gooseberries, and grapes is given on the next few pages. 
Wilh the exception of the part dealing with grapes, it has been 
reviewed by John W. Roberts, in charge of orchard spraying 
experiment in the Office of Fruit Disease Investigations of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. The schedule for 
grapes is from a Government publication. The descriptions 
of most of the pests are given in the last part of the chapter. 

Spray Schedules 

Apples 
First Spraying. 

During the dormant season preferably just as the leaf-buds are 
swelHng, but before they are open, spray with Ume sulfur solution that 
has been diluted to a specific gravity of 1.03. To each fifty gallons of 
spray material add two pounds of arsenate of lead paste. The lime 
sulfur is for the San .Jose scale and the arsenate of lead is for the leaf 
blister-mite, the bud-moth, and the cigar-case bearer. This spray is 
often called the dormant spray. 

Second Spraying. 

About the time the fruit blossoms start to look pink at the tips, but 
before they are open, spray with lime sulfur diluted to 1.007 specific 
gravity, with two pounds of arsenate of lead paste added to each fifty 
gallons of spray material. This spray is to combat the bud-moth, the 
cigar-case bearer, the canker-worm, the tent-caterpillar, and the apple- 
scab. The scab is combated, because the lime sulfur is a fungicide as 
well as an insecticide. This spray is often omitted in commercial 
orcharding, but it usually pays in the home orchard. 

Third Spraying. 

After about two-thirds of the petals have fallen from the trees, spray 
with the same mixture as given for the second spray. This is to control 
the codlin-moth, canker-worms, the bud-moth, apple-scab, and the leaf- 
spot. This spray should never be omitted, as it is the most important 
of aU. 



J 



Fruit-growing . 251 

Fourth Spraying. 

If apple blotch is prevalent, make a fourth spraying three to four 
weeks after the third with arsenate of lead and bordeaux mixture, 
4-4-50. This controls, in addition to the apple-blotch, the codlin- 
moth, the canker-worm, the leaf-spot, and the apple-scab. 

Fifth Spraying. 

If bitter-rot is prevalent, spray with bordeaux mixture, 4-6-50, about 
six weeks after the blossoms fall. 

Sixth Spraying. 

Spray eight or nine weeks after the petals fall with bordeaux mix- 
ture and arsenate of lead. This is for late broods of the codlin-moth 
and late infections of the apple-scab. Often this spray is omitted, 
but if fancy fruit is desired the grower will find that the spraying 
will pay. 

Emergency Sprayings. 

If at any time during the season green aphis appear, spray before the 
leaves begin to curl, with either of the following : whale-oil soap solu- 
tion made up of one pound of whale-oil soap to six gallons of water ; 
a tobacco preparation that contains 2.7 per cent of nicotine diluted 
with one hundred parts of water, or kerosene emulsion diluted one 
part of the stock emulsion to seventeen parts of water. The method 
of making the emulsion is given later. 



Pears 
First Spraying. 

Just as the leaf-buds are swelling, spray with lime sulfur solution 
of 1.03 specific gravity with two pounds of arsenate of lead added to 
each fifty gallons of spray material. This is to combat the San Jose 
scale and the leaf blister-mite. 

Second Spraying. 

After the leaf-buds are open, but before the first blossoms are open, 
spray with lime sulfur of 1.006 specific gravity or with bordeaux mix- 
ture, 4-4-50. This is to combat the pear-scab. 

Third Spraying. 

When the calyxes of the fruit are still open and the petals of the 
blossoms are still falling, spray with lime sulfur of 1.006 specific gravity 
with two pounds of arsenate of lead added to each fifty gallons of spray 
material. This is to combat the codlin-moth, the pear-scab, and other 
fungous diseases. 



252 Effective Farming 

Fourth Spraying. 

From ten days to two weeks after the third spraying, spray again, 
using the same kind of mixture. This is to combat the codlin-moth and 
the pear-scab. 

Emergency Sprayings. 

If the pear psylla is present in the locality, spray just after the 
blossoms fall with kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, or a tobacco prep- 
aration, using the same dilutions as given for the emergency spraying 
of apples. Repeat the spraying at intervals of three to seven days 
until the pest is under control. 

If the green aphis appear, spray as directed for the control of this 
pest on apple trees. 

Peaches 
First Sprayiiig. 

During the dormant season, before the buds open, spray with lime 
sulfur solution of a specific gravity of 1.03. This is to combat the San 
Jose scale and the peach leaf-curl. 

Second Spraying. 

Just after the petals fall, spray with arsenate of lead at the rate of 
one and one-half pounds of the paste to fifty gallons of water. This 
is to combat the curculio. Usually this spray may be omitted. 

Third Spraying. 

As the calyxes of the fruit are shedding, spray with arsenate of lead, 
one and one-half pounds, and lime, three pounds, to fifty gallons of water. 
This is to combat the curculio, the scab, and the brown-rot. 

Fourth Spraying. 

Three weeks after the third spraying, spray with self-boiled lime 
sulfur made in the proportion of eight pounds of lime and eight pounds 
of sulfur to fifty gallons of water. This is to combat the scab and the 
brown-rot. 

Fifth Spraying. 

Four weeks before the fruit is expected to ripen, spray with self- 
boiled lime sulfur. This is to combat the scab and the brown-rot. 
Early varieties of peaches will not require this spraying. 

Plums 
First Spraying. 

Just before the buds open, spray with lime sulfur solution of a spe- 
cific gravity of 1.03. This is to combat the San Jose scale. 



Fruit-growing 253 

Second Spraying. 

Just after the petals fall, spray with arsenate of lead, using one and 
one-half pounds of the paste to fifty gallons of water. This is to com- 
bat the plum curculio. 
Third Spraying. 

Ten days after the petals fall, spray with arsenate of lead, one and 
one-half pounds, and lime, three pounds, to fifty gallons of water. This 
is to combat the plum curculio. 
Fourth Spraying. 

About two weeks after the third spraying, spray with self -boiled lime 
sulfur, 8-8-50 formula. This is to combat the leaf-spot and the brown- 
rot. 
Fifth Spraying. 

About a month before the fruit is due to ripen, spray with the same 
kind of materials as used for the fourth spraying. This is to combat 
the fruit-spot and the brown-rot. 

Sour Cherries 
First Spraying. 

Just before the leaf-buds open, spray with lime sulfur solution of a 
specific gravity of 1.03. This is to combat the San Jose scale. 

Second Spraying. 

As soon as the petals fall, spray with lime sulfur of a specific gravity 
of 1.007, adding two pounds of arsenate of lead paste to fifty gallons 
of spray material. This is to combat the plum curculio and the differ- 
ent fungous diseases. 
Third Spraijing. 

Three or four weeks after the second spraying, spray with the same 
kind of materials as used for the second spraying. This is to combat the 
same pests as listed in the second spraying. 

Fourth Spraying. 

In the case of late cherries, another spraying of the same materials 
may be applied about two or three weeks after the third application. 

Fifth Spraijing. 

After the fruit is picked, another application of the spray material 
should be given. This will rid the trees of pests and be of benefit the 
following year. 

Quinces 
First Spraying. 

Just before the blossoms open, spray with bordeaux mixture, 6-6-50. 
Add two pounds of arsenate of lead paste to each fifty gallons of the 



254 Effective Farming 

spray mixture. This is to combat the leaf-spot, the fruit-spot, rust, 
and the curculio. 

Second Spraying. 

Just as the last petals are falling, spray with bordeaux mixture, 
3-4-50. Add three pounds of arsenate of lead paste to each fifty gal- 
Ions of the spray mixture. This is to combat the codlin-moth and the 
pests listed for the first spraying. 

Subsequent Sprayings. 

At intervals of about ten days, if the fruit and foliage seem to re- 
quire it, spray with the same kind of materials as used for the second 
spraying. 

Currants 
First Spraying. 

Before the buds open, spray with lime sulfur solution of a specific 
gravity of 1.03. This is to combat the San Jose scale. 

Second Spraying. 

As soon as the plants have finished blooming, spray with bordeaux 
mixture, 4-5-50. Add two pounds of arsenate of lead paste to each 
fifty gallons of the spray materials. This is to combat the currant 
worm and the leaf-spot. 

Third Spraying. 

As soon as the fruit has been harvested, spray with the same kind of 
materials as used for the second spraying. This is for the pests as 
listed in the second spraying. If the currant worm is not found on the 
plants at the time of the third spraying, the arsenate of lead may be 
omitted. 

Gooseberries 
First and Second Sprayings. 

Spray as directed for the first and second sprayings for currants. 

Subsequent Sprayings. ^ 

As soon as the berries have set, spray with lime sulfur of a specific 

gravity of 1.008. Every ten days repeat this spraying, using lime 

sulfur of this same specific gravity. These sprayings are to combat the 

gooseberry mildew, a very troublesome pest. 

After the fruit has been harvested, spray as directed for the third 

spraying for currants. 

Note. — The pests of raspberries, blackberries, and dewberries are 

not, as a rule, combated by spraying; the pests of these plants can 

usually be controlled by cutting out affected canes. 



Fruit-growing 255 

Grape Vines 

The principal insect enemies of the grape are the grape-berry moth, 
the grape root-worm, the rose chafer, the grape leaf-folder, and the 
eight-spotted forester, all of which are eating insects ; and the grape 
leaf-hopper and the brown grape aphis, sucking insects. The prin- 
cipal diseases which attack grapes are black-rot, downy mildew, pow- 
dery mildew, and anthracnose. 

The use of combination spray solutions containing chemicals which 
act as insecticides or fungicides is advocated. 

First Spraying. 

About a week before the blossoms open, or when the shoots are 
twelve to eighteen inches long, spray with bordeaux mixture, 4-3-50, 
for fungous diseases, adding two to three pounds of arsenate of lead 
paste, or one half that quantity of the powdered form, for flea-beetle, 
rose chafer, and the like. 

Second Spraying. 

Just after the blossoms fall, spray with the same materials as in the 
first application for the same fungous diseases and insects and for the 
grape-berry moth, grape leaf -folder, and adults of the grape root-worm. 

Third Spraying. 

About two weeks later, use bordeaux mixture 4-3-50, arsenate of lead 
paste two to three pounds, 40 per cent nicotine sulfate one part to 1500 
parts of the spray mixture, for fungous diseases, berry moth, eight- 
spotted forester, grape leaf -folder, brown grape aphis, grape root-worm, 
and grape leaf-hopper. To destroy the leaf-hopper, direct the spray 
against the lower surface of the leaves. To control the berry moth 
thoroughly, coat the grape bunches with the spray. 

Fourth Spraying. 

About ten days later or when the fruit is nearly grown, if black- 
rot or mildew are still appearing, spray with neutral copper sulfate or 
verdigris at the rate of one pound to fifty gallons of water. 

147. Cultural methods. — When establishing a fruit planta- 
tion, the nursery stock must be purchased, but later a grower 
may produce to advantage at least a part of what he requires. 
The best advice that can be given concerning buying from a 
nursery is to deal with a reliable firm and order long enough 
ahead to enable them to fill the order from good stock. In- 
ferior nursery stock should always be avoided. 



25G Effective Farming 

Time for planting. — Fruit-trees are planted either in the 
fall or spring. The time depends on the climate and the kind 
of tree. Except in Canada and the extreme northern part of 
the United States, fall planting of hardy trees like the apple, 
plum, and pear has the advantage that the trees start to grow 
earlier in the spring than spring-planted trees. In the case 
of peaches, quinces, and grapes, spring planting is usually 
deemed advisable, because the roots are so sensitive to the 
action of freezing and thawing that they may be injured dur- 
ing the winter. Nevertheless, peaches and quinces are some- 
times successfully planted in the fall. 

Distances for planting. — Often fruit plants are set too close 
together. The trees and vines send out their roots for rela- 
tively long distances and too close planting means lack of food 
and interference with the spraying, harvesting, and other work 
of the orchard. Bailey gives the following as the outside aver- 
age limit for fruits in the Northeastern States : 

Apples 35 to 45 ft. 

Apples, dwarf . . . . 10 to 15 ft. 

Pears, standard . . . . 20 to 25 ft. 

Pears, dwarf 12 ft. to 1 rod 

Quinces 1 rod. 

Peaches and nectarines . 20 ft. 

Plums 20 ft. 

Apricots 20 ft. 

Cherries, sour . . . . 20 ft. 

Cherries, sweet .... 30 ft. 

Pecans 40 ft. 

Grapes 6 X 8 to 8 X 10 ft. 

Currants 4 X 6 to 6 X 8 ft. 

Blackberries 4 X 7 to 6 X 9 ft. 

Raspberries 3 X 6 to 5 X 8 ft. 

Strawberries 1 X 3 or 4 ft. 

Cranberries 1 or 2 ft. apart each way 



Fruit-growing 257 

Systems of planting. — Three systems are in use for laying out 
orchards for tree-fruits. These are (1) rectangular, in which 
the trees occupy the corners of a rectangle, usually a square : 
(2) quincunx, in which the trees are planted in squares with 
an extra tree in the center of the square; often this center 
tree is planted as a filler to be removed when the others have 
attained a certain size ; (3) triangular, or hexagonal, in which 
the trees stand equidistant throughout the field. Fig. 106 
illustrates the three systems. Each of these systems requires 
a different number of trees for a given area when planted cer- 
tain distances apart. The quincunx and triangular systems 






Fig. 106. — Rectangular, quincunx, and triangular systems of setting 
orchard trees. 

permit of more trees and are often used when land is limited. 
The rectangular system permits of easier tillage than the others 
and is often preferred for this reason. 

Trimming the nursery trees. — Both roots and tops of nursery 
trees require trimming. The tree when removed from the 
nursery has lost much of its root system ; if planted with too 
much top the reduced root system would fail to care for the 
foliage and the newly planted tree would soon die. The 
trimniing of the roots consists in removing any ragged ends, 
and if there are one or two long roots they may be cut back. 
No very specific directions can be given as to how much to trim 
the tops. The amount will be modified by the age, the shape, 
the species of the tree, and by the climatic conditions of the 



258 



Effective Farming 



region where the fruit plantation is to be started. In general 
it may be said that with one-year-old trees, the usual practice 
is to cut off the top leaving only a whip. In two-year-old trees, 
if the tops are well branched, the head is usually started at the 
height desired at the time of planting. A portion of the top 

and about half the length 
of each branch is removed. 
Fig. 107 shows the two 
methods of trimming the 
trees. To insure a clean cut, 
the knife blade should be 
placed under the branch and 
an upward cut made. 

Preparation of the soil. — 
Fruit plants for best re- 
sults must make vigorous 
growth ; consequently the 
soil must be in good condi- 
tion when they are planted. 
The hole in which a young 
tree or bush is to be set 
should be deep and broad 
and surface soil should be 
placed in the bottom in 
order that the soil contain- 
ing humus will be about the 
roots of the plants. Trees 
should be set an inch or so 
deeper than they stood in 
the nursery. This gives the earth room to settle and the tree 
will later stand at about the height it stood in the nursery. 
The roots should be straightened out and the soil packed firmly 
about them. Using the fingers to get the earth about the roots 
is good practice. The dirt in the hole should be tramped down 
once or twice during the filling. When the hole has been filled 




Fig. 



107. — Nursery trees trimmed for 
planting. 



Fruit-growing 259 

dirt should be mounded around the tree sUghtly, to give it a 
chance to settle without forming a hollow in which water will 
lodge. 

Clean cultivation and sod culture. — The question of tillage 
of fruit plantations is an important one. With bush-fruits, 
cultivation, as a rule, should begin in the spring, be interrupted 
for a time when the teams and implements would injure the 
fruit, and be taken up again after the fruit has been harvested, 
and continued until midsummer. 

Grapes require frequent and thorough cultivation from early 
summer until after they blossom, when a cover-crop is planted 
to be plowed under the following spring. Peach, plum, quince, 
and sour cherry orchards are usually tilled from early spring until 
midsummer, when a cover-crop is sown. In the case of sweet 
cherries, too much cultivation may result in so much wood 
growth that the trees will not yield well. If the grower finds 
that clean cultivation results in smaller crops, he should keep 
the land between the trees in a cover-crop for two or three years. 

Much difference of opinion exists in regard to the methods 
of handling apple orchards. Growers agree that cultivation 
is necessary for orchards until they reach the bearing age, but 
many claim that after that time the ground need not be culti- 
vated. What is called the sod-culture system is advocated. 
This consists in seeding the ground to clover and some grass 
or other sod crop, cutting the growth, and allowing it to remain 
in the orchard. On certain soils and in certain climates, or- 
chards maintained in this way have been profitable. Sod- 
culture does not mean that grass is cut and hauled from the or- 
chard and used for hay. Such practice robs the ground of 
fertility and is not a good method to adopt. Opposed to those 
that believe in sod-culture, many orchardists contend that 
the clean cultivation of mature apple orchards is just as neces- 
sary as it is for peaches and plums. This whole question is 
one that is being investigated at the experiment stations, and 
many bulletins are being published about it. 



260 



Effective Farming 



Citrus fruits are kept in clean cultivation for a part of the 
year and in cover-crops the remainder. The time of the year 
when the land is tilled varies in the different sections. In 
Florida the ground is usually kept tilled from late in the fall 
until the beginning of the rainy season, which is about June 1. 
In California the ground is plowed in the spring, about March, 
and kept tilled until late fall, when a cover-crop is planted. 

148. Harvesting of fruit. — Harvesting is a very important 
part of fruit-growing. Each kind of fruit must be carefully 




handled, for bruised products will decay easily and quickly. 
A good method is to handle fruits as if they were eggs. When 
fruit comes out of storage, bruised spots show rotting quickly. 
Large growers are fully aware of the value of careful handling 
of fruit and many of them go so far as to require their pickers 
to wear cotton gloves to prevent finger-nail scratches and other 
wounds on the product. Picking receptacles should be lined 



Fruit-growing 261 

with burlap or canvas. A grain sack hung over the shoulder 
is poor equipment for apple picking; nevertheless they are 
very often used. Fruit is easily bruised by knocking the sack 
against the ladder and branches and in transferring it to the 
sorting table. When sorting fruit, as much care is necessary 
as when gathering it. Sorting-tables hned with burlap or 
canvas prevent much bruising (Fig. 108). 

Grading of the product is necessary in fruit selling. A well 
graded basket of peaches, for example, will bring more on the 
market than an ungraded one. Often it pays to sort fruit to 
size. A basket of small apples of uniform size will usually bring 
as much money as a basket of large and small ones mixed. 

Honesty of pack is good business. When a grower has con- 
vinced his customers that the bottom and middle of a container 
of fruit are as good as the top, he has done much toward sell- 
ing his produce at an advance over the market price. 

149. Pests of fruit plants. — An exhaustive discussion of 
the pests of fruit plants would require more space than can here 
be devoted to it. Consequently only a very few can be briefly 
discussed. Each kind of plant has pests that injure it, but 
fortunately these pests can be controlled, usually by spraying 
the trees with insecticides and fungicides (Figs. 103 to 105), and 
in some cases, as in the California citrus groves, by fumigation 
of the trees with hydrocyanic acid gas that is liberated under- 
neath canvas tents placed over the trees. Fig. 109 shows the 
vessel in which are the materials to form the gas being placed 
under the tent. Nursery stock is sometimes freed of pests by 
fumigation, also. 

It has been estimated that the work of insects alone causes 
a loss of over $700,000,000 each year in the United States. 
Much of this loss could be prevented by proper methods of 
combating the pests. 

San Jose scale. — One of the most destructive pests of fruit- 
trees is the San Jose scale. Its chief damage is to tree-fruits 
and currant bushes. Fortunately, although this scale cannot 



262 



Effective Farming 



be exterminated, it can be controlled to such an extent that 
the finest fruit can be produced on trees where the pest has 
existed for years. To control the pest the trees and shrubs 
should be sprayed with lime sulfur solution. 

The living scale is a very small, soft insect concealed beneath 
a flat, conical, water-proof protective scale. The scale can be 
recognized under a miscroscope by its circular shape, black tip 




Fig. 109. — Fumigating citrus trees in California with hydrocyanic acid gas 
to kUl scale insects. 



at the center with a very small ring around it. Fig. 110 
shows the characteristic appearance of the scale on twigs. 
In the winter this scale is about three-fourths the size of a pin- 
head and is black in color. This is known as the winter-rest- 
ing stage. By spring" it has increased to about the size of a 
pin-head and becomes brownish in color. Like other insects 
of this kind, it attacks its host by inserting its proboscis through 



Fruit-growing 



263 



the outer bark into the sap-bearing inner bark and sometimes 
into the soft wood. 

The females give birth to hving young, the time of year vary- 
ing with cUmatic conditions. In Pennsylvania the first brood 
appears from about June 1 to 15. The young are very small ; 
without the aid of a microscope, they look like specks of corn- 
meal, but when magnified are seen to be oval in shape, to have 
heads, with eyes, antennae, and a long thread-like proboscis. 
These insects crawl about on the 
bark and leaves of the trees for not 
longer than one or two days or until 
they find a suitable place in which 
to insert their proboscides and be- 
come fixed. This is usually in the 
bark of twigs, although it is some- 
times in the leaves or the fruit. 
As soon as they become fixed, they 
begin to secrete a waxy covering 
which comes from the pores of their 
skin. Thus a scale is formed over 
the insect, after which it loses its 
head, eyes, and antennae and does 
not resemble the crawling insect. 
The insects do not usually crawl 
more than five or six feet from the 
female that gave them birth. Often they fix very near to 
her, even overlapping her scale covering. 

The young fixed scales are at first white and circular in shape 
and have the central point. This is their second stage. They 
inject poison into the plant where they are fixed, suck out sap, 
and grow. In a few weeks they reach the third or black stage, 
the winter-resting condition. They continue to grow until 
thej^ reach their full size, when they are the brownish color of 
the adult scale. In summer this happens about a month after 
they are born. They then begin to bear young and this con- 




FlG. 



110. — ■ San Jose scale on 
twig (enlarged). 



264 



Effective Farming 



tinues at the rate of several a day for a month or so. During 
the winter all fully grown individuals and those not old enough 
to have reached the protected resting condition die. About 
90 per cent die naturally in this way, but there are still large 
numbers left. It has been estimated by the United States 
Department of Agriculture, that it is possible for an individual 

to become the ancestor of nearly a 
billion and a half insects in a year. 

Codlin-moth. — The worms in ap- 
ples, pears, and quinces are the re- 
sult of the codlin-moth. These 
moths are found in all parts of the 
world and are responsible for the 
annual loss of thousands of dollars' 
worth of fruit. The mature moth 
is grayish brown in color and about 
three-fourths inch across the ex- 
panded wings. The females lay eggs 
on the foliage of the trees. The 
first lot is laid from one to three 
weeks after the trees blossom. In 
five to ten days these eggs hatch 
into larvae about one-sixteenth inch 
in length. The larvae, or worms, 
feed for a time on the leaves, but 
soon crawl to an apple, pear, or quince and enter it through 
the calyx end, in a short time eating their way to the core. 
They consume a portion of the flesh and the seeds of the fruit 
and become full grown in about three or four weeks, when they 
eat their way out through the side of the apple. Fig. Ill 
shows the larvae in an apple. The track from the calyx end 
into the core and out to the side can be seen. Fig. 112 is an 
exterior view of young apples infested with the first brood 
of the moth. Notice the frass, or sawdust-Uke material, at the 
end of the apples. 




Fig. 



111. — Codlin-moth larvae 
in apple. 



Fruit-growing 



265 



When full-grown the insects are about three-fourths inch in 
length and are white or sometimes pinkish in color. As soon as 
the worms emerge, they find a convenient place, spin a cocoon, 
and go into the pupa state. In about four weeks they emerge 
from the cocoon and go into the mature moth stage. The 
females then lay eggs and the larvae from these eggs enter the 
fruit from the sides ; they are known as the second brood and 
are the ones that hibernate and emerge in the spring to damage 
the young fruit. 

The insects are combated by spraying poison (usually ar- 
senic) on the trees and by destroying the hibernating larvae. 
All loose bark should be scraped from the trees and burned, as 
this will destroy 
any larvae on the 
under side of the 
bark. As most of 
the larvae of the 
first brood enter 
the fruit by eating 
through the blos- 
som end, an effec- 
tive way to kill them 
is to have a poison 
ready for them to 
eat. As the calyx 
closes about ten 

days after the blossoms fall, it is necessary to spra}^ while this 
calyx is open in order to get the poison into the blossom end of 
the fruit. The usual time to spray is after about two-thirds 
of the blossoms have fallen. Later sprayings are made to kill, 
if possible, the insects of the second brood and any of the first 
brood that may have escaped the first spray. 

Apple-tree tent-caterpillar. — Another insect that is often 
troublesome on fruit-trees, especially apple trees, is the apple- 
tree tent-caterpillar. The silken tent containing the worms 




Fig. 112. — Young apples that have been infested 
with the first brood of codhn-moth. 



266 



Effective Farming 



(Fig. 113) is a familiar sight. The female lays eggs in clusters 
about five or six weeks after the trees have blossomed. The 
eggs are placed in brownish bunches around a twig and they 
hatch the next spring about the time the trees are leaving out. 
The larvae start to eat at once and work in groups, spinning 
the silken web in which they stay during the night. In the 
day time, especially if the sun is shining, they crawl out and 
eat the foliage. Often a colony will strip the foliage from a 

large area. The insect 
is combated by spray- 
ing the trees with a 
poison before they 
blossom. The worms 
eating the poisoned 
leaves will be killed. 
It is also a good plan 
to burn the webs by 
means of a torch. To 
be effective, this should 
be done on a cloudy 
day, as the worms are 
then likely to be in the 
webs. 

Plant-lice. — Sev- 
eral kinds of plant- 
lice attack fruit- 
trees. Among the 




Fig. 113. — Nest and larvce of apple-tree tent- 
caterpillar in crotch of wild cherry tree. 



most troublesome are the woolly apple aphis, the green apple 
aphis, the black cherr}^ aphis, the black peach aphis, and the 
russet plum aphis. Methods of combating these lice are by 
spraying with a solution of whale-oil soap, made up in the 
proportion of a pound of soap to six gallons of water, a tobacco 
solution made up according to directions on the package, and 
kerosene emulsion stock solution diluted one to seventeen. 
The insects usually feed on the under side of the leaf and 



Fruit-growing 267 

cause the leaves to curl ; hence, to be effective, spraying should 
be done before the leaves have curled. 

Leaf blister-mite. — Of recent years much damage has been 
done to apple trees by the leaf blister-mite. This is a very 
small insect that passes the winter in the buds and early in the 
spring emerges and feeds on the tender foliage when the buds 
open. The insects are combated by spraying with lime sulfur 
solution during the dormant season. 

Bud-moth. — In the larvae stage the bud-moth is a dirty- 
white caterpillar about one-fourth inch long that sometimes 
attacks apple foliage. The 
larvae spin a web around the 
leaves just as they are un- 
folding and eat the fohage. 
They are combated by the 
lime sulfur spray. 

Plum curculio. — The in- 
sect known as the plum 
curculio (Fig. 114) attacks 
plums, apples, pears, cherries, 
and peaches. Both sexes 
puncture the young fruit with 

,1 . , • 1 r J.1 Fig. 114. — Adult curculios on a young 

their proboscides for the pur- peach (enlarged). 

pose of feeding on the pulp 

and the female lays eggs in the punctures. About the puncture 
she cuts a crescent-shaped hole and this characteristic mark on 
the fruit can readily be distinguished. The fruits in which the 
eggs have been laid usually drop by the time they are half- 
developed, but some remain until they are ripe. When the 
trees are small, the young insects can be jarred from the tree. 
A sheet or a device known as the curculio-catcher is placed 
underneath the tree to catch the insects, after which they are 
destroyed. When the trees become large this treatment is not 
effective. The usual sprayings given to orchards for other in- 
sects tend to keep the curculio in check. 




268 



Effective Farming 



Borers. — Fruit-trees are attacked by borers (Fig. 115) 
that burrow underneath the bark of the tree near the base 
and in many instances girdle the tree. The only practical 





way of combating these borers is to dig 
them out or kill them by running a wire 
through them in the burrow. A descrip- 
tion of the peach-tree borer and methods 
of handling it will show how borers in general 
are combated. The female of the peach- 
tree borer lays eggs on the bark of the tree 
near the ground during the summer. These 
eggs hatch in a short time and the larvae 
enter the bark of the tree. If not removed 
the borers will soon girdle the tree. An 
exudation of gum about the base of a peach 
tree usually indicates the presence of a borer 
in the tree. The soil should be dug away 
from the trunk and when burrows are found 
they should be opened with a knife, the insects found and de- 
stroyed ; or a stiff wire may be pushed into the burrow and 
when the borer is reached, it should be killed by pushing the 



Fig. 115. — The peach 
borer, a, enlarged ; 
h, at work on root 
of tree. 



Fruit-growing 269 

wire through its body. The work of examining trees for borers 
is usually performed in May and some growers make an ex- 
amination in the fall, also. 

Apple-scab. — One of the most widely distributed diseases 
of the apple is the apple-scab. Dark, scabby spots are found 
on the foUage and fruit of the tree. Often the infested area 
will stop the growth of the fruit and cause it to assume a dis- 
torted shape. Fortunately the disease is easily controlled by 
spraying with boiled lime sulfur solution or bordeaux mixture. 
Most orchardists prefer the former, however, for spray injury 
to the fruit sometimes results from the use of bordeaux mixture. 

Bitter-rot. — One of the most destructive diseases of the apple 
is bitter-rot. Early in its growth it shows as small brown 
spots just beneath the skin of the fruit. Later these spots 
enlarge and the fruit near the rotton spot is usually bitter. 
As the rot grows, the surface of the diseased portion becomes 
wrinkled. As a rule, the diseased fruits fall from the tree, 
but sometimes they remain, becoming later dried, wrinkled, 
and shriveled, in which form they are called mummies. The 
disease also attacks the buds and branches, causing rough, 
cankered areas to form on the bark. To combat bitter-rot, 
all diseased fruit and branches should be burned and the trees 
sprayed about six weeks after the blossoms fall with 4-6-50 
bordeaux mixture and again in two or three weeks, if the disease 
is serious. Often it will pay to spray twice more at about 
three weeks' intervals. Lime sulfur does not seem to be an 
effective fungicide for this disease. 

Brow7i-rot. — The disease known as brown-rot attacks 
peaches, plums, and cherries. Rot starts at a spot on the 
fruit and spreads rapidly. Often the fruit rots when it is small 
and green; in other cases, at ripening time. Many of the 
fruits that decay shrivel and cling to the trees all winter. These 
are shown in Fig. 116. Since these mummies contain spores 
they should always be picked from the trees or the ground 
and be destroyed. Until recently no effective fungicides were 



270 



Effective Farming 



known that could be sprayed on the trees while they were in 
leaf. Now, either self-boiled lime sulfur or a very weak solu- 
tion of boiled lime sulfur is used for the purpose. If the disease 
is serious, several sprayings are made each year. Weather 
conditions have much to do with the spread of brown-rot ; 
if bright, dry weather prevails at the time the fruit is ripening, 
the disease is not likely to be serious, but if hot, moist weather 
occurs, the spores grow very rapidly and often with such weather 

at ripening time, 
the crop may be 
entirely destroyed, 
unless the growth 
of the rot is pre- 
vented by timely 
sprayings. 

Apple-Uotch. — A 
disease that some- 
what resembles ap- 
ple-scab is apple- 
blotch. On infested 
fruit small, light- 
brown, star-shaped 
blotches appear and 
spread rapidly, be- 
coming darker in 
color and often join- 
ing together to form large blotches that may cover more than 
half the apple. Often the surface of the apple cracks. On 
the leaves the blotches are found as small, light-brown spots, 
smaller than those of the scale. On the twigs cracks in the 
bark are seen. The spores live through the winter on the 
twigs. The remedy is to spray with bordeaux mixture three 
or four weeks after the blossoms fall. If the disease is very 
bad, it is advisable to make two or three more sprayings at 
intervals of three weeks. 




Fig. 116. — Mummies of brown-rot of peach. 



Fruit-growing 271 

QUESTIONS 

1. How are fruit plants classified by Bailey? 

2. Why should land that is to be planted to fruit-trees be well 
drained ? 

3. What is air drainage and why is it an important factor in fruit- 
growing ? 

4. Define pruning and tell why we prune trees. 

5. Why should stubs of limbs not be left on a tree? Tell how to 
remove a limb without splitting the bark of the parent limb. 

6. What kind of insecticide is used to kill insects with biting 
mouths? With sucking mouths? 

7. Define fungicide and name the chief kinds used by fruit-growers. 

8. Why should fruit-trees be planted not too close together? 

9. Tell how to plant a nursery tree. 

10. Why must fruit be handled carefully when harvested? 

11. Give the life history of the San Jose scale and tell how to combat 
this pest. 

12. How may the number of wormy apples in an orchard be re- 
duced ? 

13. Describe the method of combating the peach-tree borer. 

14. Name two diseases of the apple and tell how they are kept in 
control in an orchard. 

15. What spray preparation is used for brown-rot ? 

EXERCISES 

1. Boiled lime sulfur solution. — One of the best materials now 
recognized for spraying deciduous trees infested with scale insects is 
boiled lime sulfur solution. It is also useful in controlling several other 
pests. The solution is cheap and not injurious to the trees or shrubs 
to which it is applied, and in addition to being an insecticide, it acts 
as a fungicide in controlling such diseases as scab, leaf-spot, and allied 
fungous troubles. 

The term boiled lime sulfur solution is applied to any solution of 
lime and sulfur that has been produced by boiling the ingredients 
together over the fire or by the use of steam. The boiling causes the 
lime and sulfur to form a chemical combination consisting usually of 
several calcium sulfides. The particular sulfides formed depend on 
the formula used in the preparation of the solution. When a large 
proportion of lime is used, the lower calcium sulfides result ; when the 
proportion of lime is small, the higher sulfides are formed. The 



272 Effective Farming 

lower sulfides crystallize when cold and, therefore, it is advisable to use 
a large proportion of lime, in fact, an excess. 

What is known as concentrated lime sulfur solution is the kind of 
boiled solution now most generally used by orchardists. This can 
be stored without crystallizing and used when required. The con- 
centrated solution can be purchased from dealers or it can be made on 
the farm. When purchased it is known as commercial lime sulfur 
solution. 

The formula most used at the present time in making the concen- 
trated solution is one pound of quicklime and two pounds of sulfur to 
each gallon of water. These proportions are likely to form the higher 
calcium sulfides. The ingredients are boiled until the sulfur is dis- 
solved. Usually this requires an hour or a little less. A good rule to 
follow is to boil for fifty minutes, then stir the material to see if the 
sulfur is dissolved. The material should not be boiled more than an 
hour or certain insoluble compounds are likely to be formed. 

Two exercises are outlined here — one the making of the solution in 
the school laboratory and the other the making of it out of doors. 
For the laboratory exercise will be needed one pound of quicklime, 
two pounds of powdered sulfur, one gallon of water, a vessel in which 
to boil the ingredients (about two-gallon capacity), a cover for the 
vessel, a sieve through which to pass the sulfur, and a paddle or a glass 
rod for stirring the mixture. For the out-door exercise the equipment 
required is fifty pounds of quicklime, one hundred pounds of sulfur, 
galvanized washtub, boards for cover to the tub, two iron rods about 
five feet long and of sufficient strength when suspended horizontally 
to support the tub and contents, a hoe or paddle for stirring the mix- 
ture, a sieve, and several flat stones. 

Any good grade of fresh quicklime can be used. Air-slaked or 
water-slaked lime can be used, but twice the quantity of air-slaked 
and three times the quantity of water-slaked are required. Commer- 
cial, or powdered, sulfur is satisfactory for making the spray. 

For the laboratory exercise pour the water into the vessel, place over 
the heat, drop in the lime, and rub the sulfur through the sieve and 
into the vessel. Stir the materials to make the water cover the sulfur. 
As the water heats and the lime slakes, the lime and sulfur will start 
to unite. When the temperature of the mixture has reached the boil- 
mg point, notice the time and continue the boiling for fifty minutes. 
Keep the vessel closed ; higher temperature will be gained and higher 
sulfides will result. After the ingredients have boiled for fifty minutes, 
stir the material and see if any uneombined material is present. If 
sulfur is seen boil for ten minutes longer. When the boiling is complete 



Fruit-growing 



273 



remove the vessel from the heat and allow any sediment to settle to the 
bottom. When the liquid is cool dip and strain off the top, or red por- 
tion, and save for future use. 

For the out-door exercise build up two piles of stones about a foot 
high and four feet apart, lay the two iron rods from one pile to the 

other, spacing the rods to form a sup- 

port for the tub. Place the tub on 
the rods and pour the water into it, 
build a fire, and proceed with the 
boiling as directed for the laboratory 
exercises. 

With two washtubs used for boiling 
the solution it is possible to make 
enough concentrate in a day to keep 
busy a crew with a hand sprayer 
fitted with two leads of hose. Five 
boys could make the spray and do 
the work of spraying an orchard ; two 
boys to make the lime sulfur solu- 
tion, one boy to work the hand pump ; 
two boys to hold the two leads of 
hose. 

2. Testing lime sulfur solution. — 
The density, or strength, of lime 
sulfur solution is tested by means of 
an hydrometer, an instrument made 
to measure the density of liquids. 
Two kinds of hydrometers are in use 
— one marked to read according to 
the Baume scale and the other to 
read specific gravity direct. The 
specific-gravity type is more con- 
venient for the orchardist, although 
by means of a table, Baume readings 
can be reduced readily to specific- 
gravity readings. Instruments are 
made, also, on which both scales are 
marked. Fig. 117 shows at a cylinder for liquid to be tested, at h spe- 
cific-gravity hydrometer, and at c Baume hydrometer. Hydrometers 
can be purchased from dealers in laboratory supplies. 

Use some of the solution made in the previous exercise 



U 



/ 



cc 



Fig. 1 17. — Apparatus for determin- 
ing specific gravity of lime sulfur 
solution, a, Cylinder for liquid 
to be tested ; 6, specific-gravity hy- 
drometer ; c, Baume hydrometer. 



a quantity from an orchardist or from a dealer. 



also secure 
Have the liquid 60° F. 



274 Effective Farming 

when making the test. Stir, take out a test jar nearly full, and place 
the hydrometer in the liquid. Next determine the ratio of dilution and 
dilute some of the material to a specific gravity of 1.03. To determine 
the ratio of dilution, divide the decimal of the specific gravity of the con- 
centrate by the decimal desired for the dilute material. Suppose the 
concentrated solution tested 1.30 and it is desired to dilute to 1.03. 
Dividing .30 by .03 gives 10 as the ratio of dilution. The concentrate, 
then, contains 10 times the quantity of combined sulfides that is desired 
in an equal volume of dilute solutions. Thus, 1 volume of the con- 
centrate must be added to 9 volumes of water to get 10 volumes of the 
desired strength. Suppose the concentrate tested 1.24. Dividing 
,24 by .03 the ratio is 1 to 8 and 7 volumes of water should be added to 
1 volume of concentrate to make the dilute solution. 

3. Kerosene emulsion. — An emulsion made of kerosene, soap, and 
water is a standard remedy for plant-lice. To make a stock solution, 
combine two gallons of kerosene, one-half pound of whale-oil soap with 
one gallon of water as follows : Boil the water and dissolve the soap in 
it and while still boiling hot pour the soapy solution into the kerosene 
(have the kerosene away from the fire). Next, churn the mixture vio- 
lently for about five minutes by means of a spray-pump with a direct- 
discharge nozzle by throwing a stream of the liquid back into itself, 
or if no such pump is available, stir the material vigorously. At the end 
of the time the mixture should be of the consistency of cream. This 
stock solution is diluted for use as needed. The usual dilutions are 
from fifteen to twenty parts of water to one of the solution. 

4. San Jose scale. — Write to the entomologist of the experiment 
station of your state and ask whether or not the San Jose scale is found 
in your vicinity. If so make a special trip to near-by orchards and 
try to find infested branches. Carry some of them to the school for 
further study. There is no danger of spreading the pest in this way, 
because when the branch dies, the scale dies also. 

Draw a section of a twig as it appears under the magnifying glass. 
Compare the infested twigs with Fig. 110. 

5. The codlin-moth. — Secure some apples that have been made 
wormy by insects of the first brood of codlin-moths. Cut them through 
the exit hole and the core as shown in Fig. 111. See if you can find 
apples made wormy by the larvae of the second brood and determine 
the route taken by the worms. 

During a field trip search for cocoons of the codlin-moth. They 
may often be found on the under side of the bark of apple trees. 
Compare the number of windfalls under sprayed and unsprayed apple 
trees. 



Fruit-growing 275 

6. The peach-tree borer. — During the month of May visit a near- 
by peach orchard and look for borers. Dig the earth away from the 
base of the tree to a depth of six to eight inches and, whenever a borer 
is found, either cut into the burrow with the knife, find the borer, and 
kill it, or push the piece of wire through the burrow until it strikes the 
borer and kills it. When using the knife destroy as little bark as 
possible. Make the cut up and down, not around the tree, to avoid 
girdling it. When finished with the work place the soil back about the 
tree to prevent the roots from drying. Visit the orchard again in 
September or October and kill what borers you find. 

7. Decay in fruit. — Bruise two apples by striking them on the top 
of a table. Do not break the skin. Bruise two others by striking them 
against a sharp corner of the table. Let the skin be broken slightly. 
Keep the other two as a check. Place all the apples where they will be 
undisturbed and watch the results. Keep a record of the length of 
time that occurs before each shows decay. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 348- 

357. Also Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture :, Articles on each 

fruit class. The Macmillan Co. 
Bailey, L. H., The Principles of F ruit-Gr owing ; revised edition. The 

Macmillan Co. 
Green, Samuel B., Popular Fruit Farming. Webb Publishing Co. 
Thorpe, F. N., An American Fruit Farm. G. P. Putnam's Sons. 
Budd, J. L., and Hansen, N, E., American Horticultural Manual. 

Wiley and Sons. 
Farmers' Bulletin 127, Important Insecticides. 
Farmers' Bulletin 154, Home Fruit Garden. 
Farmers' Bulletin 181, Pruning. 
Farmers' Bulletin 643, Blackberry Culture. 
Farmers' Bulletin 662, The Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar. 
Farmers' Bulletin 650, The San Jose Scale and Its Control. 
Farmers' Bulletin 492, Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Apple. 
Farmers' Bulletin 113, The Apple and How To Grow It. 
Farmers' Bulletin 491, Profitable Management of Small Apple Orchard 

on General Farm. 
Farmers' Bulletins 631, 632, and 633, Groiving Peaches. 
Farmers' Bulletin 482, The Pear and How To Grow It. 
Farmers' Bulletin 118, Grape Growing in the South. 
Farmers' Bulletin 471, Grape Propagation, Pruning, and Training. 



276 



Effective Farming 



Farmers' Bulletin 156, Home Vineyard with Special Reference to 

Northern Conditions. 
Farmers' Bulletin 664, Strawberry Growing in the South. 
Farmers' Bulletin 675, Round-head Apple-tree Borer. 
Farmers' Bulletin 709, Muscadine Grapes. 
Farmers' Bulletin 722, Leaf Blister Mite. 

Farmers' Bulletin 723, Oyster-shell Scale and the Scurfy Scale. 
Farmers' Bulletin 727, Growing Fruit for Home Use in the Great Plain 

Area. 
Farmers' Bulletin 728, Dewberry Culture. 

Farmers' Bulletin 776, Growing Cherries East of the Rocky Mountains. 
Farmers' Bulletin 794, Citrus Fruit Improvement. 
Farmers' Bulletin 804, Aphids Injurious to Orchard Fruits, Currants, 

Gooseberry, and Grapes. 



CHAPTER XIII 

VEGETABLE-GROWING 

Market-gardening and truck-farming. 
Soils for vegetables. 
Kinds of vegetable crops. 
The farm-garden. 

Soils for the farm-garden. 

Range of crops. 

Enriching the soil. 

Tools for farm-gardening. 

Planting-table for vegetables. 
* 

Every home uses vegetables. These vegetables are grown 
by some person, somewhere. To grow them requires skill, a 
well equipped establishment, the proper soil and location, 
knowledge of varieties, ability to control insects and diseases, 
understanding of the markets and what the people want. In 
former time, the vegetables were grown at home. Now many 
or most of them are produced by specialists, who make the 
growing of them a business. Some of them are raised in fields 
under glass. The markets are supplied by truck-farmers and 
market-gardeners, as explained in the third paragraph ; yet 
it is as important as ever that every person having land grow 
as many of his own vegetables as possible. 

A wholesale produce market, about two or three o'clock in 
the morning, is a remarkable sight. There are products in 
great variety and immense quantities ; gardeners with their 
loads ; commission men displaying the produce ; buyers eager 
for the best bargains ; activity everywhere. Usually by five 
o'clock the market is empty, the produce gone to the shops 
where it will be sold to families ; and the ordinary early riser 

277 



278 Effective Farming 

passing that way sees little but empty rooms and an unin- 
teresting establishment. One half does not know how the 
other half lives. 

150. Market-gardening and truck-farming. — These terms 
require some explanation. In market-gardening the growing 
of vegetables is conducted near the market where they are to 
be sold. The gardens are near cities on high-priced land and 
the produce is hauled to market b^^ team or motor truck. 
Under these conditions the acre returns must be large in order 
to pay interest on the value of the land and other capital 
invested. In truck-farming the vegetables are grown on 
farms somewhat remote from the market and the produce 
is shipped by train or boat. The land is usually low in value 
compared with market-gardens and is chosen because of its 
adaptability to vegetable-growing. Market-gardening and 
truck-farming often overlap. For example, a market-gardener 
may at times find it more profitable to ship his produce to a 
distant market than to sell it near home, or a truck-farmer 
may find that at times he can develop a home market for at 
least a portion of his produce. 

151. Soils for vegetables. — The best soils for most vege- 
table crops are sandy or sandy loams. Vegetables usually do 
well on such soils, if the ground is properly fertilized and other- 
wise cared for. The soils are easy to work and seldom become 
sticky ; they can be worked soon after a rain ; and they are 
warm. All of these points are important. Vegetable-growing 
requires that the soil be worked frequently. Sticky soils are 
to be avoided, as they are not only difficult to get into good 
tilth, but the particles will adhere to many of the vegetables 
and may lessen their value. To be able to work a soil soon 
after a rain is a decided advantage to a gardener. A warm 
soil is of prime importance in the production of vegetables. 
If sufficiently watered and fertilized, such a soil will produce 
vegetables quickly, which tends to make them succulent and 
of better quality than if they are a long time developing. A 



Vegetable-growing 279 

warm soil also means early vegetables, the kind which bring 
high prices on the market. 

Good drainage is necessary. The water-table should be at 
least a foot and a half below the surface. Often the draining 
of a piece of light loam will make it very desirable for a vege- 
table-garden. 

152. Kinds, of vegetable crops. — Many sorts of vegetables 
are grown. The number is greater than that of general farm 
crops. Some vegetables are grown for underground parts, 
others for the foliage parts, and still others for the seed parts. 
A classification of vegetables according to the parts used for 
food adapted from Bailey is given below : 

Annual Vegetable Crops 

Crops grown for underground parts : 

Root crops. — Beet, carrot, celeriac, parsnip, radish, salsify, 
sweet potato, turnip, rutabaga. 

Tuber crop. — Irish potato. 

Bulb crops. — Onion, leek, garlic, shallot, chive. 

Crops grown for foliage parts : 

Cole crops. — Kale, or borecole, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, 
cauliflower, broccoli, kohlrabi, collard. 

Pot-herb crops (greens) . — Spinach, chard, beet, dandelion, 
purslane, mustard, sea kale, turnip (for greens), Swiss chard, 
rape. 

Salad crops. — Lettuce, endive, celery, parsley, cress, upland 
or winter cress, watercress, corn-salad. 

Crops grown for fruit or seed parts : 

Pulse crops. — Bean, pea. 

Solanaceous crops. — Tomato, eggplant, pepper, husk tomato. 

Vine crops. — Cucumber, watermelon, muskmelon, gherkin, 
pumpkin, squash. 

The chief perennial vegetables grown are asparagus, rhubarb, 
and horse-radish. The first two are used for the fohage and 
the last for the roots. 



280 Effective Farming 

153. The farm-garden. — The home-garden of the farm is 
too often badly neglected. This is unfortunate, because the 
garden can and should be made an important part of the farm. 
One of the chief reasons for having a good garden is that it 
provides healthful food for the family. This should be a 
matter of much careful consideration. A dairyman feeds 
beets to his stock primarily for the beneficial effect on their 
digestive system. In the same way one value of wholesome 
vegetables consists in helping to keep the body in good physi- 
cal condition. Good health to the farmer is not only a matter 
of comfort ; it is important from the efficiency standpoint. 

Dwellers in the city can secure fresh vegetables every day, 
because they are in the markets, but the farmer unless he 
maintains a good garden cannot have them. One usually 
thinks of the farm as a place where vegetables are always 
plentiful, but there is no place that suffers more from dearths 
and over-supplies of vegetables than the farm. This is be- 
cause the marketable supply goes to the city and there is 
none left for the farmer, unless he plans his home-garden wisely. 

Aside from the matter of health, a farm-garden is a source 
of economy. It will pay good returns for the time and money 
spent on it. If the products that can be grown on a farm- 
garden were purchased, they would amount to a considerable 
sum each year. 

Soils for the farm-garden. — As a general rule, if a sandy or 
a sandy loam soil is available, it should be chosen for the home- 
garden. An exception might occur in regions of scant rainfall. 
Such soils under this condition might dry out so quickly that 
they would not be suitable for the garden, in which case a soil 
more retentive of moisture should be used. However, even 
when the rainfall is scant, a sandy or loamy soil might be used 
advantageously for early spring crops and another garden of 
heavier soil be used for later plantings. 

Range of crops. — In planning the home-garden, a wider 
range of vegetables than is usually planted should be provided. 



Vegetable-growing ' 281 

Many vegetables are often better adapted to the soil and 
climatic condition of other regions than the ones in which 
they are usually grown. 

Hardy vegetables like onions, peas, beets, lettuce, and 
radishes should be planted early in order that fresh vegetables 
may be obtained early in the year. These hardy crops will 
stand considerable cold and, even if some are killed by frost, 
it is comparatively inexpensive to replant the seeds. Half- 
hardy and tender crops as cucumbers, melons, and the like, 
should not be planted until the ground is fairly warm. 

Some vegetables remain in good condition for table use only 
a short time after coming to maturity, while others continue 
bearing over a relatively long season. Peas, beans, radishes, 
lettuce, and sweet corn are examples of the former, and to- 
matoes, cucumbers, and melons of the latter. In the case 
of the crops that last only a short period, it is well to have a 
succession of plantings. To plant peas and beans, for ex- 
ample, once a week for four weeks will very much extend the 
season during which this vegetable is available for use. Sweet 
corn under New Jersey conditions may be planted from April 
15 to July 15, and if several plantings were made during this 
time, farmers could have fresh sweet corn for a long time 
during the summer and fall. Those vegetables that remain 
in good condition for a considerable period do not need to 
be planted in succession. Another way to extend the season 
for vegetables is to plant in the late summer those spring- 
grown crops that will make a growth in the fall. Peas, string 
beans, lettuce, carrots, and beets are examples. None of these 
crops will grow, however, if planted in midsummer. In the 
South the fall garden can be made very important and by 
the use of coldframes the season for fresh vegetables can be 
extended well into the winter. 

Certain perennial crops should always be found in the farm- 
garden. These should include bush-fruits and strawberries 
as well as asparagus, rhubarb, and horse-radish. They should 



282 ' Effective Farming 

be grouped along one side to be out of the way of the tillage 
operations of the portion to be devoted to annuals. 

Enriching the soil. — The character of the growth of vege- 
tables is very different from that of general farm crops. Vege- 
tables do not have elaborate root-systems, their period of 
growth is short, and to be of good quahty they must make a 
rapid growth. Thus it is an advantage to fertilize the garden 
heavily, more so than for field crops. Annual application of 
twenty to thirty tons of manure to an acre are often made 
on garden soils and in addition commercial fertilizer at the 
rate of a half ton or more to the acre may be used to advantage. 
After the manure is spread the soil should be plowed to a good 
depth and harrowed until a fine, mellow seed-bed is made. 
If the soil is inclined to be sour, apply lime. One hundred 
pounds of ground limestone to every hundred square feet of 
area is a usual application. The lime may be spread after 
the land is plowed and before it is harrowed. Lime and 
manure or lime and fertilizer should not be applied at the 
same time, as a chemical action meaning loss of plant-food 
would result. 

Tools for farm-gardening. — It is economy to plant and cul- 
tivate gardens with modern tools. A combined seeder and 
cultivator is a good implement to use. The seeder will plant 
more cheaply and better than can be done by hand and the 
same implement with a different attachment will, if used 
frequently, keep the soil mellow and free from weeds. 

For some vegetables the rows may be made wide and horse- 
power used to cultivate the garden, but in the case of others, 
string beans and peas, for example, too wide planting is not 
advisable as the weeds are not easily kept down unless the 
plants shade the ground between the rows. 

154. Planting-table for vegetables. — A very complete plant- 
ing-table for vegetables for conditions both in the North and the 
South is given in Table IV, pages 284-5. This will be especially 
handy for reference. 



Vegetable-growing 283 

QUESTIONS 

1. In general what are the differences between market-gardening 
and truck-farming? 

2. What kinds of soil are best for vegetables? Why? 

3. Why should a farmer have a good home-garden? 

4. For what reasons should a wide range of crops be grown in the 
home-garden ? 

5. Name some hardy vegetables that can be planted early. 

6. Why do vegetables require large quantities of fertilizer? 

7. State the advantages of using modern tools in caring for a 
garden? 

8. Why is too wide planting not advisable for some vegetable 
crops ? 

EXERCISES 

1. Farm-garden. — Plan a garden for your own farm, taking into 
consideration vegetables for spring and fall planting, the arrangement 
in the garden, the methods of planting, the quantity of seed required, 
when each lot of seed should be planted, and other similar matters. 

2. Method of growing cucumbers. — This method of growing 
cucumbers is applicable especially to a small garden. The equipment 
required is a sugar barrel, a quantity of manure, cucumber seeds, a 
brace and one-inch bit, a hammer, nails, and a short strip of wood. 

Remove the top from the barrel and bore three one-inch holes in 
each stave, spacing them about six inches apart. Bore the first hole 
six inches from the bottom. Nail the pieces of the head together with 
the strip of wood to form a cover for the barrel. Dig a hole in a fertile 
spot in a garden and place the barrel in this hole so that about half the 
barrel is above the level of the ground. Fill the barrel with manure. 
Make a mound of fertile soil around the sides of the barrel, extending 
to within six inches of the top. The soil should be about twenty inches 
thick at the base. Plant six or eight hills of cucumbers in the mound 
of soil around the barrel, placing eight or ten seeds an inch deep in each 
hill. 

Pour water on the manure in the barrel each day. This forms a 
liquid fertilizer that will pass through the holes of the staves and fur- 
nish plant-food and moisture to the cucumbers. Keep the cover on 
the barrel, except when watering the plants. Flies will breed rapidly 
in the manure unless the barrel is kept covered. As soon as the plants 
start to run to vine, remove all but the best three or four in each hill. 
This will leave more fertility and moisture far the others. Carefully 



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286 Effective Farming 

weed and cultivate the soil of the mound of earth at frequent intervals 
during the growing season, and an excellent crop of cucumbers should 
be harvested. Keep a record of the cost of labor, materials, and yield. 

Grow the same number of hills of cucumbers in the garden in the 
usual way without special attention to plant-food and moisture and 
contrast the results with those of the cucumbers grown around the 
barrel. 

3. Forcing crops of rhubarb. — In the spring, crops of rhubarb can 
be much hastened by artificially heating the plants in the following way : 
Place an inverted half barrel over the clump of plants and pile manure 
on top and on the sides of the barrel. The heat from the manure will 
cause early growth. Leave a few clumps of rhubarb uncovered and 
contrast the growth in the two lots. Why do the rhubarb stalks under 
the barrel grow somewhat spindling? Why is there a difference in 
color between the covered and the uncovered plants? 

REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 274- 
275 ; 279-281. The Macmillan Co. 

Taubenhaus, J. J., Diseases of Truck Crops. E. P. Dutton & Co. 

Davis, K. C, School and Home Gardening. The Lippincott Co. 

Cobb, Ernest, Garden Steps. Silver, Burdett and Company. 

Croy, Mae.Savell, Vegetable Book. G. P. Putnam's Sons. 

Green, Samuel B., Vegetable Gardening. Webb Publishing Co. 

Nolan and Green, Vegetable Gardening. Row, Peterson & Co. 

Reed, E. N., Late Cabbage. Wiley and Sons. 

Yeaw, F. L., Market Gardening. Wiley and Sons. 

Farmers' Bulletin 121, Beans, Peas, etc. as Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin 254, Cucumbers. 

Farmers' Bulletin 255, Home Vegetable Garden. 

Farmers' Bulletin 647, Home Garden in the South. 

Farmers' Bulletin 642, Tomato Growing in the South. 

Farmers' Bulletin 232, Okra : Its Culture and Uses. 

Farmers' Bulletin 220, Tomatoes. 

Farmers' Bulletin 766, The Common Cabbage Worm. 

Farmers' Bulletin 818, The Small Vegetable Garden. 

Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C, 
School Home-Garden Circulars 1-10. 

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., Reading-Course Bulletin 30, Vege- 
table Gardening, and Bulletin 34, Home-Garden Planting. 



CHAPTER XIV 
FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Importance of animal feeding. 

Functions of feed. 

Balanced rations. 

Kinds of feeds. 

Palatability of feed. 

Effect of feed on the digestion. 

Cost of feed. 

Suiting the feed to the animal. 

Digestibility of feed. 

We have learned that we cannot expect good crops unless 
we provide the plants the proper kinds and quantities of food 
materials. Similarly we cannot hope to have the best domestic 
animals, or to secure the heaviest yields from them, unless we 
learn how to feed them. The feeding of animals has now 
come to be a complex subject, due to the greater knowledge 
we have secured, the attempt to use many new kinds of feed, 
and the necessity of obtaining surer results. The principles 
of feeding are not difficult to understand, however, and we are 
now about to discuss them and to learn how to make some of 
the applications to practice. 

155. Importance of animal feeding. — The feeding of farm 
animals is an important part of animal husbandry. Many 
feeders who know only the art of feeding are successful, but 
when a man is found who knows both the art and the science 
of the work, he usually is doubly successful. The principles 
on which the feeding of farm animals is based deal with such 
factors as the composition of the various feed stuffs, the diges- 
tion and absorption of the feed, the quantity and kind of feed 

287 



288 Effective Farming 

required by different classes of animals, whether or not the feeds 
are palatable to the animals, and their cost and availability. 

156. Functions of feed. — When taken into the animal body 
and digested and absorbed, feed performs certain functions. 
In the first place it creates energy that is used in moving the 
body about, in heating the body, in carrying blood through the 
circulatory system, in moving the food through the alimentary 
canal, and the like. In addition, energy is required to produce 
the changes that are going on in the cells of the body. The 
feed also builds up the tissues of the body and secretes the 
fluids necessary for the life processes. Tissues are constantly 
wearing out and must be replaced. 

The water, ash, carbohydrates, protein, and fat all have their 
uses when taken into the animal body. Water is contained 
in every kind of living tissue and none of the life processes 
can be carried on without it. The body of an animal is about 
50 per cent water and the fluids range from 90 to 99 per cent 
water. As in plants, water is the means by which the food 
is carried from place to place in the body. Water also helps 
to keep the temperature normal. 

Ash is used largely to furnish mineral matter for the bones. 
In the case of hens it furnishes the material for the egg-shells. 
A certain amount of ash is found in all tissue. 

Lean meat, or muscle, blood, skin, hair, hoofs, and vital 
organs are largely protein. As these tissues are made out of 
the protein of the feed, it is readily seen why the proper quan- 
tity of protein in the feed is so necessary. If there is in the 
feed more than enough protein to supply that needed in build- 
ing up the lean meat and other tissues, the surplus goes to 
make energy. As energy can be produced more cheaply by 
the use of carbohydrates and fats, it is not profitable to have 
feeds contain a larger proportion of protein than is necessary. 

The carbohydrates produce energy and heat and build up 
the fat of the body. Therefore, feeds rich in carbohydrates, 
such as corn, are fattening. 



i 



Feeding Farm Animals 289 

Fat, when taken into the body as feed, acts the same as 
carbohydrates ; that is, it produces heat and energy and makes 
fat. A given quantity of fat will produce about two and a 
quarter times as much heat and energy as the same quantity 
of carbohydrates. 

157. Balanced rations. — The term ration is used to in- 
dicate the quantity of feed supplied to an animal in a given 
time. A balanced ration is one that supplies all the con- 
stituents in the best proportion to serve the needs of the animal 
for the purpose for which it is kept. For example, a balanced 
ration for a dairy cow contains the food compounds necessary 
to maintain life and to make it possible to produce milk up to 
the limit. Experiments and practical tests have shown that 
animals will do more work and more profitably when fed a 
balanced ration than when fed an unbalanced one. 

The terms maintenance ration and productive ration are 
used in connection with animal feeding. A maintenance ration 
is one that supplies the needs of an animal at rest with no 
loss or gain of weight. A productive ration is one that supplies 
the needs of the animal in excess of maintenance and makes 
possible a production of milk, a gain in weight, or power to 
pull a load, and the like. The terms nutritive ratio, wide 
ratio, and narrow ratio, also need defining. The nutritive 
ratio is that of the digestible protein in a feed or ration to the 
digestible carbohydrates and fat. (See paragraph 163.) To 
compute the nutritive ratio of a feed or ration, the amount of 
the digestible fat is multiplied by 2\ and added to the amount 
of the digestible carbohydrates and the sum divided by the 
amount of the digestible protein. The ratio is expressed as 1 
to the quotient. For example, suppose a ration furnished 2.6 
pounds of digestible protein, 13 pounds of digestible carbo- 
hydrates, and .6 pound of fat ; the nutritive ratio is calculated 
as follows : 

(.6 X 2i + 13) - 2.6 = 5.5 + 

The nutritive ratio is, therefore, 1 : 5.5. 

u 



290 



Effective Farming 



A wide nutritive ratio is one in which the relative proportion 
of protein is small and the carbohydrates large. A narrow 
nutritive ratio is one in which the protein is large and the 
carbohydrates small. In practice a ratio of 1 : 5 or less is said 
to be narrow ; one from 1 : 5 to 1:8 medium, and one larger 
than 1 : 8 wide. 

158. Kinds of feeds. — Feeds may be grouped as concen- 
trates and roughage. Concentrates are those that yield a large 
proportion of digestible nutrients. They include the grains, 
seeds, and by-products. The grains are rich in carbohydrates 
and rather poor in protein, as shown by the analyses given in 
Table V. 

TABLE V 

Composition of Grains 



Feed 



Corn, grain , 
Wheat, grain 
Oats, grain . 
Barley, grain 
Rye, grain 



Composition 



Water 

% 



10.6 
10.5 
10.4 
10.8 

8.7 



Ash 

% 



1.5 
1.8 
3.2 
2.5 
2.1 



Protein 

% 



10.3 
11.9 
11.4 
12.0 
11.3 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 

% 



2.2 

1.8 

10.8 

4.2 

1.5 



Nitrogen- 
free 
Extract 



70.4 
71.9 
59.4 

68.7 
74.5 



Fat 

% 



5. 
2.1 

4.8 
1.8 
1.9 



Note. — This and the succeeding tabulations of the compositions of 
feed stuffs are from a pamphlet entitled " Principles of Animal Feed- 
ing," published by the International Textbook Co. 



Most by-product feeds are rich in protein and poor in car- 
bohydrates. They are much used with the grains in securing 
a proper balance of the concentrates of a ration. In Table VI 
are given the analyses of some of the most common by-product 
feeds arranged in order of the proportion of protein that they 
contain. 



Feeding Farm Animals 



291 



TABLE VI 

Composition of By-product Feeds 



Feed 



Hominy feed . . . . 

Corn bran 

Rye middlings . . . , 

Rye bran 

Wheat bran 

Shorts 

Germ oil meal . . . . 
Dried brewers' grains . 

Gluten feed 

Malt sprouts . . . . 
Dried distillers' grains 
Gluten meal . . . . 
Old process linseed meal . 
New process linseed meal 
Cottonseed meal . . . 

Tankage 

Dried blood 



Composition 



Water Ash 

% % 



9.6 

9.4 

11.8 

11.8 

11.9 

11.2 

8.6 

8.7 

9.2 

9.5 

7.6 

9.5 

9.8 

9.7 

7.0 

7.0 

8.5 



2.7 
1.2 
1.7 
3.4 
5.8 
4.4 
2.4 
3.7 
2.0 
6.1 
2.0 
1.5 
5.5 
5.5 
6.6 
15.9 
4.7 



Protein 

% 



10.5 
11.2 
14.3 
14.6 
15.4 
16.9 
21.7 
25.0 
25.0 
26.3 
31.2 
33.8 
33.9 
37.5 
45.3 
53.9 
84.4 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 

% 



4.9 

11.9 

2.4 

3.5 

9.0 

6.2 

8.8 

13.6 

6.8 

11.6 

11.6 

2.0 

7.3 

8.9 

6.3 

5.8 



Nitrogen- 
free 
Extract 

% 



64.3 
60.1 
66.9 
63.9 
53.9 
56.2 
47.3 
42.3 
53.5 
44.9 
35.4 
46.2 
35.7 
36.4 
24.6 
5.6 



Fat 

% 



8.0 
6.2 
2.9 
2.8 
4.0 
5.1 

11.2 
6.7 
3.5 
1.6 

12.2 
6.6 
7.8 
2.0 

10.2 

11.8 
2.5 



Roughage feeds are those of a bulky nature. They may be 
either dry or succulent. The hays, straws, and fodders are 
dry roughages and silage, roots, pasturages, and soiling crops 
are succulent. Roughages contain a large proportion of crude 
fiber and are less digestible than the concentrates. They are 
of value, however, for a certain quantity of bulk must be in 
the feed to aid digestion. Some classes of animals require 
more bulky feeds than others. For example a dairy cow 
must have more bulk in her feed than a horse requires. 

Hay is the most valuable dry roughage. Hays may be 
classed as leguminous and non-leguminous. Since leguminous 
hays are richer in protein than hay from grasses, less protein 



292 



Effective Farming 



in the form of concentrates is necessary. Leguminous hays 
are especially valuable for dairy cows ; alfalfa, clover, cowpea, 
and soybean hays are largely used in rations for dairy cattle. 
Table VII gives analyses of some of the leading hays. 



TABLE VII 
Composition of Hays 









Composition 










Carbohydrates 




Feed 


Water 


Ash 


Protein 














Fat 




% 


% 


% 


Fiber 

% 


Nitrogen- 
free 
Extract 

% 


% 


Alfalfa 


6.6 


9.0 


15.8 


30.2 


35.8 


1.9 


Cowpeahay . . . 






10.5 


14.2 


8.9 


21.2 


42.6 


2.6 


Soybean hay 






11.8 


7.0 


14.9 


24.2 


37.8 


4.3 


Red clover hay . . 






15.3 


6.2 


12.3 


24.8 


38.1 


3.3 


Crimson clover hay 






9.6 


8.6 


15.2 


27.2 


36.6 


2.8 


Japan clover hay . 






11.0 


8.5 


13.8 


24.0 


39.0 


3.7 


Bur clover hay . . 






9.0 


5.0 


13.6 


30.6 


38.2 


3.6 


Timothy hay . . 






13.2 


4.4 


5.9 


29.0 


45.0 


2.5 


Barley hay . . . 






5.5 


4.2 


8.8 


24.7 


44.9 


2.4 


Oat hay .... 






14.4 


5.7 


8.9 


27.4 


41.2 


2.8 


Redtop hay . . . 






8.7 


4.9 


8.0 


29.9 


46.4 


2.1 


Rye hay .... 






9.5 


5.7 


10.8 


32.6 


38.7 


2.7 


Mixed grasses hay . 






15.3 


5.5 


7.4 


27.2 


42.1 


2.5 


Mixed grasses and clover hay 


12.9 


5.5 


10.1 


27.6 


41.3 


2.6 



The straws are very high in crude fiber. Nevertheless they 
are of some value as feed. Horses doing no work or dry cows 
are sometimes given straw as a part of their rations, as they 
do not need roughages containing richer feed materials. In the 
analyses given in Table VIII the relatively small percentages 
of nitrogen-free extract and protein and the high percentages 
of fiber should be compared with the analyses previously 
given. 



Feeding Farm Animals 



293 



TABLE VIII 

Composition of Straws and Corn Stover 





Composition 


Feed 


Water 

% 


Ash 

% 


Protein 

% 


Carbohydrates 






Fiber 

% 


Nitrogen- 
free 
Extract 

% 


Fat 

% 


Wheat straw 


9.6 


4.2 


3.4 


38.1 


43.4 


1.3 


Oat straw 


9.2 


5.1 


4.0 


38.1 


42.4 


2.3 


Rye straw 


7.1 


3.2 


3.0 


38.9 


46.6 


1.2 


Barley straw 


14.2 


5.7 


3.5 


36.0 


39.0 


1.5 


Corn fodder 


42.4 


2.7 


4.5 


14.3 


34.7 


1.6 


Corn stover 


40.5 


3.4 


3.8 


19.7 


31.7 


1.1 



Fodders and stovers come principally from the corn plant. 
Corn fodder is the whole mature dried plant. Corn stover is 
the mature dried plant minus the ears. They compare with 
the grass hays in analyses. Often the fodder or the stover is 
shredded before it is fed. This prepares it in better form for 
feeding than if left whole. Fodder is often fed to fattening 
steers, but for dairy cows it is less desirable. Corn stover is 
sometimes used as a maintenance ration for keeping steers 
over the winter, but it is not especially desirable when large 
quantities are fed. The analyses of the two feeds are given in 
Table VIII. 

The succulent roughages contain a large proportion of water 
and are very valuable for this reason. Pasturage forms prac- 
tically a balanced ration for dairy cattle, sheep, and horses ; 
often they are given no other feed. Hard-worked animals 
should, however, receive some supplement to pasturage. 

Silage, soihng crops, and root crops are fed extensively to 
dairy cows, since a large quantity of succulence is necessary 
for animals in milk flow. Succulence not only aids in milk 



294 



Effective Farming 



flow, but helps to keep the bowels in a lax condition, which is 
essential to high production of milk. The analyses of a few 
of the most used succulent feeds are given in Table IX. 



TABLE IX 
Composition of Green Crops 















Composition 










Carbohydrates 




Feed (Green) 


Water 


Ash 


Protein 














Fat 




% 


% 


% 


Fiber 

% 


Nitrogen- 
free 
Extract 

% 


% 


Alfalfa 


71.8 


2.7 


4.8 


7.4 


12.3 


1.0 


Silage corn . 










73.6 


2.1 


2.7 


7.8 


12.9 


0.9 


Corn . . . 










79.3 


1.2 


1.8 


5.0 


12.0 


0.5 


Crimson clover 










80.9 


1.7 


3.1 


5.2 


8.4 


0.7 


Common millet 










80.0 


1.0 


1.5 


6.5 


10.5 


0.5 


Pasture grass 










80.0 


2.0 


3.5 


4.0 


9.7 


0.8 


Peas and oats 










79.7 


1.6 


2.4 


6.1 


9.6 


0.6 


Red clover 










70.8 


2.1 


4.4 


8.1 


13.5 


1.1 


Sorghum . 












79.4 


1.1 


1.3 


6.1 


11.6 


0.5 


Soybeans 












75.1 


2.6 


4.0 


6.7 


10.6 


1.0 


Sugar-beets 












86.5 


0.9 


1.8 


0.9 


9.8 


0.1 


Carrots 












88.6 


1.0 


1.1 


1.3 


7.6 


0.4 


Mangels . 












90.9 


1.1 


1.4 


0.9 


5.5 


0.2 


Rutabagas 












88.6 


1.2 


1.2 


1.3 


7.5 


0.2 


Turnips . 












90.1 


0.9 


1.3 


1.2 


6.3 


0.2 



159. Palatability of feed. — Feed must be eaten with reHsh 
to give the best results. If a ration is not palatable, an animal 
will not eat it in sufficient quantities to make for productive- 
ness. A mixture of feeds is often more palatable to an animal 
than one feed; a little more succulence in the ration often 
causes the animal to eat with a greater relish ; the substitution 
of one kind of mill feed for another is often an advantage. 
Moldy feed is not relished by animals and often it may cause 



Feeding Farm Animals 295 

sickness or death. The keeping of feed boxes clean is a good 
way to increase the palatabiHty of the ration. 

160. Effect of feed on the digestion. — Another factor that 
must be considered is the effect of the feed on the digestive 
system of the animal. Some feeds are laxative in character; 
others are constipating. Succulent feeds are laxative, so also 
are linseed meal and wheat bran ; corn stover and timothy hay 
are somewhat constipating to cattle and for this reason dairy- 
men often avoid them ; cottonseed meal is also constipating 
if fed in too large quantities. 

161. Cost of feed. — If the farmer is a good business man, 
he will consider the cost item carefully. As a rule home- 
grown feeds are cheaper than purchased ones and progressive 
farmers make, use of them whenever possible. Growing a 
leguminous hay and including it in the ration will often make 
it possible to cut down on the quantity of by-product con- 
centrates necessary. At times it may pay to sell certain feeds 
and buy others to take their places. In figuring the cost of 
feeds, the cost of the protein determines largely the choice of 
feeds. This is especially true in the West. 

162. Suiting the feed to the animal. — Timothy hay is very 
good for horses, but is not suited to dairy cattle. Red clover 
hay, although richer in protein than timothy, is not so often 
fed to horses, as it is likely to be dusty. Dairy cattle, on the 
other hand, are fed red clover hay in preference to timothy. 

163. Digestibility of feed. — A part of the food that is taken 
into the alimentaiy tract is not digested and passes from the 
body as waste matter. The proportion of the food digested 
depends on the kind, the class of the animal, and the condition 
of health of the animal. The value of a feed when eaten by 
an animal depends on how much of it is digested. The term 
digestible nutrients is used to indicate the portion of the food 
materials that is digested and absorbed by the animal. Ex- 
periments have been made with each kind of feed to determine 
the proportion of digestible nutrients. The results are not 



296 



Effective Farming 



absolutely accurate, but they are sufficiently so for practical 
purposes. In Table X is found a tabulation giving the digestible 
nutrients of the feeds of which the composition is given on 
previous pages. 

TABLE X 

Digestible Nutrients of Feeds 



Feed 



Total Dry 
Matter in 

100 LB. 



Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Hominy feed 

Corn bran 

Rye middlings 

Rye bran 

Wheat bran 

Shorts 

Germ oil meal 

Dried brewers' grains . . . 

Gluten meal 

Old process linseed meal 

New process linseed meal . . 

Cottonseed meal 

Tankage 

Dried blood 

Alfalfa hay 

Cowpea hay 

Soybean hay 

Red clover hay 

Japan clover hay 

Bur clover hay 

Timothy hay 

Barley hay 

Oat hay 

Redtop hay 

Mixed grasses and clover hay 
Wheat straw 



89.4 

89.5 

89.6 

89.2 

91.3 

90.4 

90.6 

88.2 

88.2 

88.1 

88.8 

91.4 

91.3 

90.8 

90.2 

90.3 

93.0 

93.0 

91.5 

93.4 

89.5 

88.2 

84.7 

89.0 

91.0 

86.8 

85.0 

86.0 

91.1 

87.1 

90.4 



Digestible Nutrients 

IN 100 LB. 



Protein lb. g-bf,^; Fat lb. 



7.8 


66.8 


4.3 


8.8 


67.5 


1.5 


10.7 


50.3 


3.8 


8.4 


.65.3 


1.6 


9.5 


69.4 


1.2 


6.8 


60.5 


7.4 


6.0 


52.5 


4.8 


11.0 


52.9 


2.6 


11.2 


46.8 


1.8 


11.9 


42.0 


2.5 


13.0 


45.7 


4.5 


15.8 


38.8 


10.8 


20.0 


32.2 


6.0 


21.3 


52.8 


2.9 


30.2 


32.0 


6.9 


31.5 


35.7 


2.4 


37.6 


21.4 


9.6 


50.1 


— 


11.6 


60.8 


— 


2.5 


11.4 


40.0 


1.3 


5.8 


9.3 


1.3 


10.6 


40.9 


1.2 


7.1 


37.8 


1.8 


9.1 


37.7 


1.4 


8.2 


39.0 


2.1 


2.8 


42.4 


1.3 


5.7 


43.6 


1.0 


4.7 


36.7 


1.7 


4.8 


46.9 


1.0 


5.8 


41.8 


1.3 


0.8 


35.2 


0.4 



Feeding Farm Animals 

TABLE X {Continued) 



297 



Feed 



Oat straw . . . . 
Rye straw . . . . 
Barley straw 
Corn fodder . . . . 
Corn stover . . . . 
Alfalfa, green . . . 
Silage, corn . . . . 
Corn, green . . . . 
Crimson clover, green 
Common millet, green 
Pasture grass 
Red clover, green . 
Sorghum, green 
Soybeans, green 
Sugar-beets . . . , 
Carrots . . . . . 

Mangels 

Rutabagas . . . . 



Total Dry 
Matter in 

100 LB. 



90 

92 
85, 
57. 
59, 
28, 
26, 
20, 
19, 
20. 
20. 
29. 
20. 
24. 
13. 
11. 
9. 
11. 



Digestible Nutrients 

IN 100 LB. 



p-t--ih. £-s: 



1.3 
0.7 
0.9 
2.5 
1.4 
3.6 
1.4 
1.0 
2.4 
0.8 
2.5 
2.9 
0.6 
3.1 
1.3 
0.8 
1.0 
1.0 



39.5 

39.6 

40.1 

34.6 

31.2 

12.1 

14.2 

11.9 

9.1 

11.0 

10.1 

14.9 

11.6 

11.0 

9.8 

7.7 

5.5 

8.1 



Fat lb. 



0.8 
0.4 

0.6 
1.2 
0.7 
0.4 
0.7 
0.4 
0.5 
0.2 
0.5 
0.5 
0.3 
0.7 
0.1 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 



QUESTIONS 

1. What are the functions of feed when digested and absorbed by 
an animal? 

2. Of what use is the water in a feed? 

3. Why is it not economy to supply an excess of protein in feed? 

4. What is meant by the term balanced ration ? 

5. Define maintenance ration, productive ration, nutritive ratio. 

6. What is the nutritive ratio of a ration that contains 2.8 pounds 
of digestible protein, 14 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and .6 
pound of fat ? 

7. Find the nutritive ratio of the following feeds according to the 
analyses of the digestible nutrients given in Table X : corn, wheat, 
oats, wheat bran, cottonseed meal, alfalfa hay, timothy hay, wheat 
straw, pasture grass, mangels. 

8. Make a list of feeds rich in protein and one of feeds low in 
protein. 



298 Effective Farming 

9. Why should the concentrates of a ration be richer in protein 
if timothy hay is fed as the roughage than if alfalfa hay is fed ? 

10. Why are silage, soiling crops, and roots fed extensively to dairy 
cows? 

REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 56-122, 
58, 92, 103, 106. The Macmillan Co. 

Jordan, W. H., The Feeding of Farm Animals. The Macmillan Co. 

Henry, W. A., Feeds and Feeding. Published by the author. Madi- 
son, Wis. 

Henry, W. A., and Morrison, F. B., Feeds and Feeding. Abridged. 
The Henry-Morrison Co., Madison, Wis. 

Armsby, Henry P., Principles of Animal Nutrition. Wiley and Sons. 

Farmers' Bulletin 22, The Feeding of Farm Animals. 

Farmers' Bulletin 346, The Computation of Rations for Farm Animals 
by the Use of Energy Values. 

Animal Industry Bulletin 143 (U. S. Department Agriculture), Main- 
tenance Rations of Farm Animals. 

Experiment Stations Bulletin 77 (U. S. Department Agriculture), 
Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs. 



CHAPTER XV 

HORSES 

Types of horses. 

Draft, heavy-harness, light-harness, saddle, ponies. 
The draft breeds. 

Percheron, Clydesdale, Shire, Belgian, Suffolk. 
The heavy-harness breeds. 

Hackney, French Coach, German Coach, Cleveland Bay. 
The light-harness breed. 

Standard-bred. 
The saddle-horse breeds. 

Thoroughbred, American saddlers, Arabian. 
Ponies. 

Shetland, Welsh, Hackney, Bronchos and Indian ponies. 
Market classes of horses and mules. 
Breaking and training colts. 

Teaching the colt to stand tied. 

Gentling the colt. 

Teaching the colt to lead. 

Handling the feet of the colt. 

Teaching the colt the commands used in driving. 

Driving in double harness. 

Driving in single harness. 

Breaking the colt to ride. 
Feeds for horses. 
Time to water horses. 
Soundness in horses. 
Determining age of horses. 

It is often said that the horse will soon pass slwsly as a farm 
animal because of the automobile, motor-truck, and tractor. 
This is an error. Much of the farm work can never be per- 
formed economically by mechanical power. There are a 
thousand uses for horses for which it would not be worth while 
to invent power machinery. The money value of horses is 

299 



300 Effective Farming 

increasing, at the same time that the use of automobiles 
is increasing. This is specially true of heavy horses. The 
raising of colts as an adjunct to other farm business is a good 
practice. Mares are therefore particularly desirable as farm 
horses. 

In the South the mule is in more favor for farm work than 
the horse. He stands the heat, is adapted to rough conditions, 
and is better handled by colored labor. 

164. Types. — Horses may be grouped as draft, heavy- 
harness, hght-harness, saddle horses, and ponies. A brief 
description of each of these types follows. 

The points of the horse are shown in Fig. 118. The location 
of these points should be learned, as they will be helpful in 
understanding the descriptions that follow. 

Draft horses. — Those horses used for pulling heavy loads 
are known as draft horses. They are broad, deep, low-set, 
and massive, ranging in weight from 1600 to 2500 pounds. 
Those that weigh less than 1600 pounds are known on the 
market as chunks. Draft horses range in height from 15 to 
17 hands. 1 

A broad, deep, compact body set on rather short legs is the 
general conformation of a draft horse. The head should lack 
coarseness, the forehead should be broad with good width 
between the eyes, the neck of moderate length, and neatly 
fitted to the shoulders, which should be obliquely set and of 
good length. The back should be fairly short, the chest, deep 
and broad, the coupling short,-the ribs well sprung, the croup 
should be straight and of moderate length. The hind legs 
should be well placed, the thighs and quarters well muscled, 
the hocks clean, the pasterns sloping, and the feet large and 
sound. In action the horse should show snap and vigor, es- 
pecially in the walk, and the stride should be long and regular. 

1 Height in horses is measured from the ground to the top of the 
withers. The unit of measurement is a hand, or 4 inches. A height 
of 15-3 hands means 15 hands and 3 inches. 



Horses 



301 



Heavy -harness horses. — The show horses of the parks are 
classed as heavy-harness horses. They are known, also, as 
coach, or carriage, horses. The weight varies somewhat ac- 
cording to the breed; mares and geldings range from 1100 to 




^z 



Fig. 118. — Points of the horse. 1, muzzle ; 2, Hps ; 3, nostril ; 4, face ; 5, eye ; 
6, forehead ; 7, fore top ; 8, ears ; 9, poll ; 10, jaw; 11, throatlatch ; 12, neck; 
13, crest; 14, withers; 15, shoulder; 16, breast; 17, point of shoulder; 
18, arm; 19, elbow; 20, fore flank; 21, forearm; 22, knee; 23, cannon; 
24, fetlock joint ; 25, pastern ; 26, coronet ; 27, feet ; 28, seat of side bone ; 
29, seat of spHnt ; 30, chestnut; 31, abdomen; 32, ribs; 33, back; 34,"loin; 
35, point of hip; 36, coupling; 37, hind flank; 38. sheath; 39, stifle joint; 
40, seat of thoroughpin ; 41, seat of bog spavin; 42, seat of l)one spavin; 
43, seat of ring bone; 44, seat of curb; 45, hock; 46, gaskin ; 47, thigh; 
48, quarter; 49, croup; 50, point of buttock; 51, tail. 



1250 pounds and stallions from 1250 to 1450 pounds. The 
typical coach horse stands about 16 hands high. The 
animals are less angular than the light-harness horses, next 
described, and show less speed. The head should be lean, 



302 Effective Farming 

the neck somewhat arched, the shoulders long and sloping, 
the body round with a broad back, the croup long and level 
with heavy muscling, the pasterns sloping, and the feet of fair 
size. Quality and action are of prime importance. The bone 
must be of good texture, the hair fine and silky, the skin soft 
and smooth, and the muscles and veins prominent. The action 
should be smooth and high, good knee and hock action being 
especially desirable. 

Light-harness horses. — Both roadsters and speed horses are 
included in the light-harness horse class. Roadsters have 
endurance, good speed on the road, and are well adapted for 
drawing light vehicles. As a type they are less uniform than 
any of the others. A typical one, however, weighs about 
1000 pounds and stands from 15-1 to 15-3 hands high. The 
muscles should be prominent and the form decidedly angular. 
The head should be lean and refined, the neck slender and of 
good length, and the shoulders sloping. The body is usually 
rather closely coupled and shows heavy muscles over the loins. 
The bone should be fine in texture, the hair fine and glossy, 
and the skin soft ; these indications of quality are essential. 
The pasterns should slope at an angle of about 45 degrees 
with the ground, be of good length, and show elasticity. The 
stride should be straight and long. Speed on the road is of 
prime importance. 

Speed horses driven in harness include both trotters and 
pacers and they have the general conformation of roadsters. 
Endurance and speed on the race track in such horses are, of 
course, especially necessary. 

Saddle horses. — Horses of the saddle type are used for 
pleasure riding, racing, and hunting. They range in height 
from 14 to 16 hands and in weight from about 850 to 1050 
pounds. A saddle horse should be sure-footed, an easy-rider, 
and easily controlled. In conformation it should have oblique 
shoulders and pasterns to give spring to the action ; high, thin 
withers to prevent the saddle from turning ; and a short back 



Horses 303 

and short loins to give strength for carrying the weight of the 
rider. 

Sub-classes of saddle horses according to action are five- 
gaited and three-gaited animals. Five-gaited saddlers must 
possess five gaits — walk, trot, canter, singlefoot, or rack, and 
a slow gait which may be either the running walk, fox-trot, or 
slow pace. Three-gaited saddlers have the three gaits — walk, 
trot, and canter. 

The canter is a slow gallop. The rack is a rather fast gait 
in which each foot hits the ground at a different time. It is 
often called the singlefoot gait. The running walk is a slow 
singlefoot that is intermediate in speed between the walk and 
the rack. The fox-trot is a short broken gait in which the 
front legs go at a trot and the hind legs at a modified pace. 
The slow pace is a saddle gait in which the horse paces at 
slow speed, but does not show much side motion. 

Ponies. — A pony is any horse, regardless of type of breed, 
under 14-2 hands in height. At the horse shows, they are 
usually grouped into three classes: (1) under 46 inches high; 
(2) 12-2 to 14-2 hands ; (3) polo ponies. 

165. The draft breeds. — Percheron, Clydesdale, Shire, 
Belgian, and Suffolk are the draft breeds of horses found in 
the United States. A brief description of each breed is given 
on the next few pages. 

Percheron. — The most popular draft horse in the United 
States is the Percheron (Fig. 119). More horses of this breed 
are registered as pure-bred animals than of all the other draft 
breeds combined. The breed derives its name from the dis- 
trict of La Perche in northwestern France. The exact origin 
of the breed is somewhat obscure, but according to most 
authorities it was developed by the crossing of native mares 
and Arabian stallions that were brought to the district in 
1820 by the French government. Percherons range in height 
from 15-3 to 17 hands and in weight from 1600 to 2300 
pounds. As a rule they show a little less weight than the 



304 



Effective Farming 



mr^ 


f 






■^^t 

^At 


A- 


-r 


* 


• '.. 



Fig. 119. — - Percheron stallion 



Belgians or the Shires, but more than Clydes or Suffolks. 

The Percheron is of the true draft form. Feather, or the long 

hair about the fet- 
locks, is not found 
in the animals of 
this breed. The 
head is refined in ap- 
pearance, with good 
width between the 
eyes ; the ears are 
rather small and are 
carried erect ; the 
neck is of moderate 
length and shows 
less arch than is 

found in some of the other draft breeds. The action is true, 

strong, and snappy. The usual colors are gray and black, but 

often bay, brown, 

and chestnut are 

found. 

Clydesdale. — The 

native home of the 

Clydesdale (Fig. 

120)isintheCounty 

Lanack in the Val 

ley of the Clyde, 

Scotland. Clydes- 
dales range in 

height from 16 to 

17 hands and in 

weight from 1800 

to 2200 pounds. 

Compared with Per- 

cherons, they are 

somewhat longer of 




Fig. 120. — Clydesdale stallion. 



Horses 



305 



leg and lighter and longer of body. Three features made 
prominent by the breeders of these animals serve to make the 
Clydes rather distinctive. These are color, feather on the 
legs, and action. Bay or brown are the colors most desired. 
Formerly some of the animals were black, gray, or chestnut, 
but in 1827 the Highland Agricultural Society ruled that only 
bay or brown animals could compete for prizes in the shows. 
Naturally this caused breeders to choose individuals of these 
colors for mating and, as a result, most of the animals now 
seen are either bay or brown. The breeders desire, also, a 
white blaze on the face and white on one or more of the feet. 
The feather on the legs is very characteristic of the breed. 
This is the long silky hairs that grow on the back of the legs 
below the knees and hocks. In action the animals are un- 
equaled by those 
of the other draft 
breeds, some horse- 
men claiming that 
the breeders lay too 
much stress on this 
quality. 

Shire. — A native 
of England, the 
Shire (Fig. 121), is 
the result of cross- 
ing the native mares 
there and stallions 
brought from Nor- 
mandy and Flan- 
ders. In general appearance Shire horses resemble Clydes, as 
they are usually bays or browns, have white markings on the 
face and legs, and feather on the legs. The stallions range in 
height from 16 to 17-2 hands and in weight from 1800 to 
2400 pounds. The animals are low-set and the body is of 
good width, depth, and length, with heavily muscled shoulders 




Sliiri" .stallion. 



306 



Effective Farming 



and thighs. The head of many of the animals is inchned to 
be a Httle plain with a slight lack in width of forehead and 
a coarseness about the muzzle. The nose is apt to be Roman 
which, if not too pronounced, is a feature desired by the 
breeders. In action the gait is a little sluggish, especially in 
the trot. Usually, however, the animals are good at the walk 

and the stride is 
long and straight. 

Belgian. — The 
native home of this 
horse (Fig. 122), as 
the name implies, 
is Belgium. The 
animals are the re- 
sult of the selection 
and mating of the 
native horses of 
Flanders, no out- 
siders having been 
used in the im- 
provement. Bel- 
gian horses are the 
heaviest of the draft 
breeds, the stallions 
ranging in weight 
from 1800 to 2500 
pounds and stand- 
ing from 16 to 17 hands high. The animals have deep, thick 
bodies, and short legs that are free from feather. The neck is 
short and thick and carries a high crest, the latter being a pro- 
nounced feature. In action some judges criticize the animals 
as being slow and sluggish in the walk with too short a stride. 
They are, however, usually good at the trot, going true and 
straight. Chestnut, bay, and roan are the prevailing colors; 
sometimes black or gray is seen. 




Fig. 122. — Belgian mare. 



Horses 



307 



Suffolk. — The smallest of draft horses is the Suffolk (Fig. 
123), a native of Suffolk County in eastern England. The 
animals range in height from 15-2 to 16-2 hands and in weight 
from 1700 to 1800 pounds. On account of their small size, 
they are better suited for agricultural purposes than for heavy 
draft work in the cities. In general appearance the animals 
show a full, round body set on short, clean legs. The neck is 
of good length and the crest is very well developed. The body 
is deep, the ribs well sprung, the rump full and round. The 




Fig. 123. — Suffolk stallion. 



legs are short and free from feather. In action the animals 
rank next to the Clydes. Chestnut is the characteristic color, 
light chestnut being preferred to dark. 

166. The heavy-harness breeds. — Hackney, French Coach, 
German Coach, and Cleveland Bay are the heavy-harness breeds 
found in America. These, as stated previously, are the show 
horses of the parks. 

Hackney. — The breed known as the Hackney (Fig. 124) 
originated in the counties of Norfolk and York, England. 
The foundation stock was Arabian, Barb, and Turkish stallions 



308 



Effective Farming 



crossed with native mares. In conformation the animals are 
rather short-legged and broad-bodied with a level back and well 
muscled loins. The head is neat and clean, the neck beau- 
tifully curved, the shoulders sloping, and neatly joined to the 
neck. They are among the most beautiful horses in the world. 
In height they vary from less than 14 hands to something over 
16 hands. Three classes are recognized in England; those 
under 14 hands are classed as ponies, those from 14 to 15 hands 





JL 




■ 4 



Fig. 124. — Irving Model, 1090. A Hackney pony stallion, for which S5000 
was paid and $15,000 afterwards refused. Champion Hackney pony stallion 
of the National Horse Show, 1915.. 



as cobs, those 15 hands and over as carriage horses. In weight 
the largest Hackney seldom exceeds 1250 pounds. The action 
is high, quick, and elastic and the knees and hocks are usually 
well flexed. Individual animals, no matter how good their 
other qualities may be, if they lack in action, are discriminated 
against by breeders and purchasers. Chestnut, bay, black, 
gray, roan, and buckskin are the usual colors, chestnut pre- 
dominating. 



Horses 



309 



French Coach. — The name French Coach is appUed to this 
breed in America, but in France, where the animals are native, 
the name Demi-Sang, meaning half-blood, is used. The 
breed dates back to the seventh century when by order of 
Louis XIV, Arabian, Barb, and Thoroughbred stallions were 
imported into France and crossed on the best saddle mares 
of Normandy. The first colts were termed half-bloods, which 
accounts for the name, Demi-Sang. Compared with the 
Hackneys the French Coach horses are a little less smooth 
and symmetrical, but are larger in body and bone and better 
muscled. In action the trot is not so high nor snappy, but the 
stride is more pow- 
erful and longer. 
The height ranges 
from 15 to 16 hands 
and the weight 
from 1200 to 1350 
pounds. The pre- 
vailing colors are 
bay and brown, al- 
though black and 
chestnut are some- 
times seen. 

German Coach. — 
The name German 
Coach (Fig. 125) is 
applied in America 
to any coach horse 

imported from Germany. In that country there are several 
breeds of coach horses, each with a separate registration society. 
Some of these breeds are Oldenburg, Hanoverian, Holstein, and 
East Friesland. As might be inferred, the coach horses coming 
to the United States from Germany are variable in size and 
conformation. They range in height from 15-2 to 17 hands 
and in weight from 1300 to 1500 pounds. Usually, the animals 




Fig. 125. — German Coach stallion. 



310 Effective Farming 

are larger than those of the French Coach breed, the body 
being heavier and longer. In action they lack the height 
and stylishness of the Hackney, but the stride is somewhat 
longer. The prevailing colors are bay and brown, although 
black is not uncommon. 

Cleveland Bay. — The breed known as the Cleveland Bay 
originated in the northeastern part of England and it is thought 
that the animals are the product of native mares crossed with 
Thoroughbreds. The breed is not especially popular in America 
and the horses are seldom seen at the shows. The animals 
range in height from 16 to 16-3 hands and in weight from 
1200 to 1550 pounds. They are somewhat more upstanding 
and larger than Hackneys, have good quality, and strong action 
that lacks somewhat in style. The color is always some shade 
of bay, shading to black on the legs, tail, and mane. 

167. The light-harness breed. — The only breed of light- 
harness horse in the United States is the Standard-bred, some- 
times known as the American Trotter, 

Standard-bred. — A product of America, the Standard-bred 
(Fig. 126) includes both trotters and pacers. The original 
stock was produced by native mares crossed with Thorough- 
breds. The object in view was speed performance and, as 
might be expected, the type is not at all uniform. The animals 
range in height from 14 to 16 hands and in weight from 800 to 
1100 pounds. A distinguishing characteristic is good action. 
Whether at trot or pace, the stride is long and rapid and the 
gait true and level. Bay and brown are the most common 
colors, but many other colors are found in the breed. 

Standard-bred horses have been developed because of the 
interest of Americans in harness races. The history of the 
breed extends back to Colonial times when light horses were 
imported and bred in Massachusetts, Virginia, North and 
South Carolina. Several families of the breed have been 
developed, the most important of which are Hambletonian, 
Mambrino, Morgan, Clay, Blue Bull, and Pilot. Many 



Horses 311 

notable records have been made on the track by representatives 
of the breed. 

168. The saddle-horse breeds. — The Thoroughbred, the 
American saddle horse, and the Arabian are the saddle-horse 
breeds represented in America. 

Thoroughbred. — The English running horse, the Thorough- 
bred (Fig. 127), originated in the southern part of England, 




Fig. 126. — Standard-bred horse. 

and is the result of crossing the light-weight native mares of 
that region and the stallions of Arabian, Barb, and Turkish 
blood. Thoroughbreds range in height from 15 to 16 hands 
and in weight from 900 to 1200 pounds. In general appearance 
they are somewhat angular. They have fine, lean heads 
that possess much quality. The chest is often narrow, but 
it carries good depth. The back and loins are very well mus- 
cled and have great driving power. The action in desirable 



312 



Effective Farming 






Fig. 127. — A Thuruughbrod horse. 



specimens is very 
straight, free, and 
easy. In color the 
animals vary con- 
siderably, the most 
popular colors being 
bay and brown, al- 
though chestnut, 
black, sorrel, gray, 
and roan are often 
seen. 

American sad- 
dlers. — As the name 
indicates, this sad- 
dle horse (Fig. 128) 
originated in Amer- 
ica. It is the result of crossing native mares and Thorough- 
breds. Horses used under the saddle have always been popular 
in the South and it is that section of the country to which 
credit must be given 
for the American 
saddle-horse breed. 
Gay has well de- 
scribed the animals 
as follows : 

''Since their 
foundation, saddle 
horses have been 
selected to a model, 
as well as a per- 
formance, standard. 
They may be dis- 
tinguished by the 
following charac- 
ters : an upstand- 




FiG. 128. — American saddle hort 



Horses 



313 



ing horse of most symmetrical and beautifully molded form, a 
well-proportioned, blood-like head, the features of which are 
most defined, an intelligent countenance, and an exceptionally 
long, shapely and supple neck, on which the head is set in a 
lofty, graceful manner. The two ends are the most character- 
istic parts of the saddle-bred horse, the long, level croup and 
unusually high-set and proudly-carried tail balancing the lofty 
carriage of head, in compliance with the Kentuckian's idea of 
' Head up and tail a-risin'.' An extreme degree of quality, 
finish and style, with a rich bay, brown, chestnut, or black 
color, usually moderately and evenly marked with white, 
complete a beautiful picture horse. The way of going was 
formerly distinguished by the rack, but with the increasing 
favor shown the walk-trot-canter horse the rack has been 
omitted in many representatives of this breed. The trot is quite 
frequently marked 
by more action than 
is usually required 
of saddle horses, 
and is, in fact, well 
suited to harness 
performance. The 
highest class saddle- 
bred horse is a show 
horse in every sense 
of the word, whether 
under saddle or 
harness." 

Arabian horses. — 
The native home of 
this horse (Fig. 129) 
is in the deserts of Arabia, where the animals have been bred 
for a long time by the migratory tribes that inhabit this region. 
So scattered are these tribes that little is known about the 
ancestry of the animals. True it is, however, that they have 




Fig. 129. — Arabian staUion, Cibolo, 134. 



314 Effective Farming 

followed true lines of breeding that have given Arabian horses 
of to-day beauty, style, stamina, and endurance that is not 
excelled by any other breed. Arabian horses have had a 
marked influence on the improvement of other breeds. They 
were used extensively for improving the Thoroughbred and 
the Hackney and, to somewhat less extent, the French Coach 
and the German Coach horses. 

Regarding the height and weight of Arabians, H. K. Bush- 
Brown, Secretary of the Arabian Horse Club of America, 
states : " Horses of the Maneghi-Hadruji family of Arabs 
are the largest, sometimes attaining 16 hands, but usually 
ranging from 15 to 15-2 hands. Other pure-bred Arabs are 
from 14 to 15 hands. They weigh from 850 to 1000 pounds 
and as they are very compactly built they are heavy for their 
inches and seem larger than they are." 

The Arabian is a symmetrical, stylish horse. The head is 
broad and high, the ears small and well set, the nostrils large, 
the neck of good length and well shaped. The body is shorter 
than that of the Thoroughbred ; the ribs are well covered with 
flesh and spring out from the spine with a graceful, symmetrical 
curve. The animals have one less vertebra than any of the 
other breeds, which is an advantage in carrying weight in the 
saddle. 

169. Ponies. — The small size of the animals of the pony 
breeds is no doubt due in a large measure to adverse climatic 
conditions and scanty food supply. Ponies as bred to-day are 
kept to their diminutive size by careful selection and breeding. 
The three chief breeds are the Shetland, the Welsh, and the 
Hackney. In America certain groups of ponies not recognized 
as breeds are the familiar bronchos, mustangs, and Indian 
ponies of the western plains. 

Shetland ponies. — The Shetland is a native of the Shetland 
Islands, a group of islands north of Scotland where the winters 
are long and severe and the feed scanty. In size Shetlands 
range from 30 to 46 inches and in weight from about 325 to 



Horses 315 

385 pounds. Small size, of course, is desired and, for this 
reason, the registry associations discriminate against animals 
over a certain height. The association in Scotland will not 
register an individual that is over 42 inches high ; in America 
those up to 46 inches may be registered. Shetland ponies 
have the general appearance of a very small, chunky draft 
horse. A wide variation in color is found, bay, brown, black, 
chestnut, and gray being rather common colors. Many have 
white markings. Shetlands are very desirable for children, 
being docile and easily controlled. 

Welsh ponies. — This breed of ponies is a native of Wales. 
The animals are somewhat larger than the Shetlands, ranging 
from 11 to 13 hands. In conformation they are of the light- 
horse type. In temperament they are more active than the 
Shetlands and less desirable for young children. The ponies 
are extensively used for polo purposes. 

Hackney ponies. — Any small Hackney horse is known as a 
Hackney pony, size being the only distinguishing difference 
between the horse and the pony. A Hackney pony is shown 
in Fig. 124. 

Bronchos and Indian ponies. — The American ponies of the 
western plains are thought to be descendants of horses that 
were lost by the early explorers. These ponies have a remark- 
able capacity for hard work under the saddle. Formerly 
they were much used as cow ponies, but in recent years larger 
horses have been preferred for this purpose. Many of the 
pony mares have been crossed with larger stalhons and the 
offspring, which are somewhat larger than the ponies, have 
been found useful as tough riding and driving horses. 

170. Market classes of horses and mules. — At Chicago, 
St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Buffalo, Boston, New York, 
and some other cities, there are large horse and mule markets 
where the animals offered for sale are grouped in certain classes 
based on such qualities as soundness, conformation, quality, 
condition, action, age, color, education, and general appear- 



316 



Effective Farming 



ance. An exhaustive study of the market classes of horses 

and mules was made a few years ago by R. C. Obrecht, of the 

University of lUinois, and pubhshed as Bulletin 122 of the 

Agricultural Experiment Station of Illinois. Table XI, which 

follows, is from this bulletin, and will be found valuable for 

reference. 

TABLE XI 

Market Classes of Horses and Mules with Limits in Height 

AND Weight 



Classes 



Sub-classes 



[ Light draft 

\ Heavy draft . 

1 Loggers .... 

r Eastern and export 

j chunks 

I Farm chunks . 

I Southern chunks . 

{Expressers . 
Delivery wagon . 
Artillery horses . 
Fire horses . 
[Coach .... 

I Cobs 

I Park horses 

[Cab 

Runabout . 
Roadster . . . 
Five-gaited Saddler 
Three-gaited j Light 
Saddler i Heavy 
f Light 1 
Hunters <! Middle } . 

[ Heavy J 
Cavalry horses . . 
I Polo ponies . . . 

Mining mules 

Cotton mules 

Sugar mules 

Farm mules .• 

Draft mules 



Draft horses . 
Chunks . . 

Wagon horses 

Carriage horses 
Road horses . 

Saddle horses . 



Height 

HANDS 



15-3 to 16-2 
16 to 17-2 
16-1 to 17-2 

15 to 16 



15 

15 

15-3 

15 

15-1 

15 

15-1 

14-1 

15 

15-2 

14-3 

15 

15 



to 15-3 
to 15-3 
to 16-2 
to 16 
to 16 
to 17-2 
to 16-1 
to 15-1 
to 15-3 
to 16-1 
to 15-2 
to 16 
to 16 



14-3 to 16 



15-2 to 16-1 



15 to 15-3 
14 to 14-2 
12 to 16 
13-2 to 15-2 

16 to 17 
15-2 to 16 
16 to 17-2 



Weight 

POUNDS 



1600 to 1750 
1750 to 2200 
1700 to 2200 

1300 to 1550 

1200 to 1400 

800 to 1250 

1350 to 1500 

1100 to 1400 

1050 to 1200 

1200 to 1700 

1100 to 1250 

900 to 1150 

1000 to 1150 

1050 to 1200 

900 to 1050 

900 to 1150 

900 to 1200 

900 to 1200 



1000 to 1250 

950 to 1100 
850 to 1000 
600 to 1350 
750 to 1100 

1150 to 1300 
900 to 1250 

1200 to 1600 



Horses 317 

171. Breaking and training colts. ^ — The future value and 
usefulness of a colt depends largely on whether or not he is 
broken and trained so that he is safe to handle in the stable 
and on the road and will obey orders of the rider or driver 
promptly. The work of breaking and training should be done 
when the animals are young, for old horses are much more 
difficult to train than colts. The usual plan is to teach the colt 
to stand tied and to lead before he is weaned and to break him 
to harness and saddle between the ages of two and three years. 

Teaching the colt to stand tied. — The first step is to teach 
the colt to stand tied. This is accomplished by the use of 
halter and ropes. First, place a halter on the animal, double 
a four-foot rope, put the loop under the tail as a crupper, make 
three twists in the rope, bring the two ends forward, and tie 
them together in front of the chest. Next, tie a rope loosely 
about the body back of the withers and knot it on both sides to 
the crupper rope. With these ropes in position pass a twelve- 
foot rope through the halter ring and tie one end to the crupper 
rope at the breast of the animal and hitch the other end to a 
strong post, leaving about three feet of slack. 

Gentling the colt. — While tied the colt should be petted and 
rubbed on the sides, hindquarters, and legs. This operation 
is termed gentling. Hold the head-stall in one hand and with 
the other pet and rub the head and neck. Then, gentle the 
back, the sides, and lastly, the legs. In gentling the hind 
parts make use of a stick about four feet long on one side of 
which is a burlap bag wrapped and tied. First, let the colt 
smell the stick, then rub the padded part over the legs and 
on the body. If the colt kicks do not beat him, allow him to 
examine the stick again, then rub him as before. The gentling 
should be continued until the colt can be approached from 
either side and rubbed all over his body. 

The second lesson should be the same as the first, teaching 
him to stand tied and to be rubbed and petted. 
1 Based on Farmers' Bulletin 667. 



318 Effective Farming 

Teaching the colt to lead. — At the third lesson he should be 
broken to the lead. To do this, loosen the rope from the post, 
step away from the colt, tell him to come and follow the com- 
mand with a pull on the rope. As soon as he steps forward 
pet him, then step away and repeat the command. Soon he 
will follow without the pull on the rope. About half an hour 
is long enough for this lesson. 

The next lesson should be started with the crupper rope in 
position, but it should be removed after a brief workout and 
the halter used alone. Lessons without the crupper rope should 
be continued until the colt has learned to lead well. 

Handling the feet of the colt. — While breaking a colt to lead, 
it is well to accustom him to having his feet handled and also 
to trim the hoofs. Careful trimming of the feet of colts often 
avoids such trouble as knock-knees, bow-legs, pigeon-toes, 
cow-hocks, interfering, and paddling. Begin the work of 
handling the feet with the near front foot. Tie a rope around 
the pastern, grasp the rope close to the foot, push against the 
shoulder of the colt, and at the same time quickly lift the foot, 
rub it gently, and let it down. Repeat this operation several 
times after which trim and level the hoof. To raise a hind 
foot, put a rope on the pastern, draw the foot forward, and 
smooth it with the hand. Repeat this several times and 
follow by bringing the foot to the shoeing position and trim- 
ming the hoof. 

Teaching the colt the commands used in driving. — After a colt 
has been broken to lead he should be broken to drive in the 
harness. This means to go forward, to stop, to rein to right 
or left, and to back. A bitting harness may be used to accus- 
tom the colt to bit and harness. This consists of an open 
bridle and snaffle bit, check and side reins, surcingle, and 
crupper. For the first lesson leave side and check reins loose 
and turn the colt into a small paddock for an hour. On the 
next day tighten the reins a little and turn him loose again 
for an hour. On the third day put on the driving lines, take 



Horses 319 

a position behind him with the Unes in hand, and have an 
assistant lead him. As soon as he becomes accustomed to 
the driver, do without the assistant. Drive the colt for half 
an hour in a paddock or lane where there are no other horses. 
This lesson is to teach him to go forward, nothing else. Use 
the whip, chck to him, or say '' get up " to let him know what 
is wanted. It is necessary to drive in a circle both to the 
right and the left as this makes the colt familiar with objects 
on both sides of him. Often an animal will be accustomed to 
objects on one side, but will be frightened when they are seen 
for the first time on the other. 

In the next lesson the colt should be driven for a while, then 
taught to stop at the command ^' whoa." To stop a colt say 
'' whoa " loud enough to be heard plainly and follow with a 
pull on the reins. In making this pull, hold one of the reins 
tight and pull with the other, then relax. If the colt does not 
stop, repeat the command and the pull. As soon as he has 
learned to stop in this way, teach him to stop by giving the 
command only, not the pull. 

During the first part of the next lesson, the '' get up " and 
" whoa " commands should be reviewed, after which he should 
be taught to back. To do this, drive him a few steps forward, 
stop him, give the command '' back " followed by a pull on 
the lines. If he backs pet him and repeat the command. Do 
not keep up a steady pull on the lines, as this may cause him 
to take the bit and forge ahead. Make the lesson short, give 
another the next day, and continue the lessons until he has 
been well trained to drive in bitting harness. 

The work harness is next substituted for the bitting harness. 
Fasten the traces and breeching together loosely at first and 
tighten them gradually as the training progresses. 

Driving in double harness. — For the first lesson in double 
harness, hitch the colt with a gentle horse and drive them for 
half an hour without a wagon. At the next lesson the first 
step is to make him familiar with the wagon. Lead him up 



320 Effective Farming 

to it, let him smell it, rattle it, and lead him around it. Then, 
lead the team horse to his place at the tongue, bring the colt 
up, attach the lines, the neck yoke, and the traces, and hitch 
the two animals together. Next, have an assistant take the 
colt's lead rope. Drive a few steps and stop, using the break 
to hold the wagon away from the team. Have the assistant 
pet the colt to quiet him and when he is quiet start again, this 
time going a little farther than the first time. As soon as he 
gets over being frightened, drive in a circle a few times. Stop 
occasionally and quiet him and when he goes well have the 
assistant get into the wagon. Take only a short drive and 
when the colt shows signs of fear, stop and let him examine 
whatever may have frightened him. Keep up the lessons, 
taking a longer ride each day until the colt is broken. 

Driving in single harness. — Put the colt in single harness, 
using an open bridle, lead him to the cart and allow him to 
examine it. A two- wheel breaking cart with long shafts is 
best for this purpose. Have an assistant draw the cart around 
the colt a few times and after he shows no signs of fear, raise 
the shafts and draw the cart up to place. After he has been 
hitched, get into the seat and have the assistant lead the animal 
for a while. Later drive without the aid of an assistant. Start 
the colt quietly, drive a few steps, stop and pet him. Keep 
this up for several lessons until the animal can be driven quietly. 

Breaking the colt to ride. — When a colt is to be broken to 
ride, it is well first to break him to drive both single and double, 
then break him to ride. Put on the saddle and lead him around. 
Tie him up for a while and, keeping the saddle on, turn him 
into a paddock. Next, accustom him to being mounted by 
getting on and off several times. After he is accustomed to 
the mounting, get on his back and have an assistant lead him. 
As soon as possible, ride him without the aid of an assistant. 
If the colt gets unruly, pull his head to one side, and do not 
let him get it down. Keep up the lessons until he will go for- 
ward, back, stop, and so on, at the will of the rider. 



Horses 321 

172. Feeds for horses. — Oats is the grain used most ex- 
tensively in the United States for horses, but it is becoming 
so expensive in some parts of the country that there is a con- 
stant demand for other feeds to take its place. Corn is most 
commonly substituted and it has been found to be a safe and 
satisfactory feed when used in the correct proportion. At the 
New Hampshire Station, a mixture of one part of bran and one 
part of corn was found to be a good substitute for oats. Barley 
is much used on the Pacific Coast. Kafir corn is used in the 
semi-arid regions of the country. Factory by-products make 
good feed and are extensively used. Bran, shorts, gluten 
feed, linseed meal, and cottonseed meal are often included in 
the rations for horses. 

Timothy and prairie hay are the most used hays for horses, 
although in many sections where these are not produced others 
are substituted. At the North Dakota Station, brome-grass 
hay was found to give as good results as timothy. At the 
Utah Station, alfalfa when judiciously fed was found to be 
satisfactory. When feeding alfalfa hay, less grain is required 
in the ration than if timothy hay is fed. At the Illinois Station, 
from 20 to 22 per cent less hay was required to maintain the 
weight of horses fed with alfalfa than those fed with timothy. 
At the same station, a slight difference was observed in favor 
of clover hay over timothy hay. 

In Table XII are given examples of rations actually fed to 
horses in the different parts of the country. It will be noticed 
that there is a predominance of oats and corn in the rations. 

173. Time to water horses.^ — The proper time to water horses 
is a matter concerning which opinions differ. Many feeders 
believe that they should be watered before feeding, while 
others are equally certain that feeding should precede watering. 
Some extended experiments have been recently made in Europe 
which have led to definite conclusions, and seem to have 
reached the truth in the matter. 

1 C. F. Langworthy in Farmers' Bulletin 170. 



322 



Effective Farming 



TABLE XII 
Rations for Horses 



Kinds of Horses 



ARMY HORSES 

United States : 
Cavalry . . 



Artillery- 



Mules . . . 

HORSES WITH 
LIGHT WORK 

Driving horse, 
Wyoming Sta- 
tion 

Carriage horse . 

Fire company 
horses : 

Boston, Mass . 
Chicago, 111. . 

HORSES WITH 
MODERATE WORK 

Express horses : 

Richmond, Va., 
summer . . 



Jersey 
N.J. 



City, 



Boston, Mass. 

Cab horses : 
Washington, 
D. C. . . . 

San Francisco, 
Cal. . . . 



M O 



Lb. 
1,050 
1,125 
1,025 

1,200 
1,050 

1,400 
1,350 



1,400 



1,325 



1,325 



1,200 



1,350 



Rations 



Lb. 

Oats, 12 
Hay, 14 

Oats, 12 
Hay, 14 

Oats, 9 
Hay, 14 



Alfalfa, 21.25 
Straw, 3.2 



Oats, 10 
Hay, 12 



gram. 



f Ground 
\ 9.38 
I Hay, 18 
/ Oats, 4 
I Hay, 15 



Corn, 4.67 
Oats, 5.33 
Bran, 0.83 
Corn meal, 4.16 
Hay, 15 

Corn, 2 
Oats, 19 
Bran, 1.5 
Hay, 9.5 
Corn, 12 
Oats, 5.25 
Hay, 20 

Oats, 10 
Corn, 5 
Hay, 23 

Oats, 8 
Hay, 16 



Kinds of Horses 



Farm horses : 

California Sta- 
tion . . 

California Sta- 
tion . . . 

Wyoming Sta- 
tion . . . 

New Hampshire 
Station . 



New Jersey 
Station . . 



Massachusetts 
Station . 



Utah Station 



Utah Station 



Farm mules, Vir- 
ginia Station 

HORSES WITH 
SEVERE WORK 

Truck and draft 

horses : 
Chicago, 111., 

daily ration 
South Omaha, 

Nebr. . . . 



o 



Lb. 

1,000 

1,000 
1,000 

1,235 
1,000 

1,100 

1,370 
1,325 

1,310 



1,500 
1,500 



Rations 



Lb. 

Alfalfa hay, 12 
Wheat hay, 11 
Crushed bar- 
ley, 7 
Alfalfa hay, 10 
Barley hay, 12 
Cracked corn, 7 
Alfalfa, 13.75 
Straw, 2.25 
Bran, 2 
Corn, 6 
Gluten meal, 6 
Hay, 10 
Hay, 6 
Bran 2| 
Corn, 4? 
Dried brewers' 

grain, 8^ 
Hay, 18 
Wheat bran, 2 
Provender, 6 = 

crushed corn, 

2.73 ; oats, 

3.27 
Alfalfa hay, 25 
Bran and 

shorts (1 : 1), 

10 
Timothy hay, 

22.8 
Bran and 

shorts (1 : 1), 

10 

Hay, 15.2 
Corn, 10.5 
Corn silage, 
10.5 



Oats, 7.5 
Hay, 20 
Oats, 15 
Hay, 12 



Horses 323 

So far as was observed, the time of drinking had no effect on 
the digestibihty of a ration of grain and hay. When hay only 
was fed there seemed to be a shght advantage in watering before 
feeding. The general conclusion was drawn that horses may 
be watered before, during, or after meals without interfering 
with the digestion and absorption of food. All these methods 
of watering are equally good for the horse, and each of them 
may be employed according to circumstances. It is obvious 
that certain circumstances may make it necessary to adopt 
one or the other method. For instance, after severe loss of 
water, such as occurs in consequence of long-continued, severe 
exertion, the animal should always be allowed to drink before 
he is fed, as otherwise he will not feed well. 

In this connection it is worth noting that many American 
farmers believe that watering before feeding is best. Although 
all methods of watering seemed in these tests to be equally 
good for the horse, it is not desirable to change unnecessarily 
from one method to another. Animals, or at least some of 
them, appear to be not altogether indifferent to such a change. 
In the experiments referred to above, it was found that when- 
ever a change was made from the plan of watering after feeding 
to that of watering before, the appetite fell off for some days ; 
not that the horses did not consume the whole of the food 
given to them, but for some days together they did not eat 
with the same avidity as before, and took a longer time to 
consume their rations completely. A similar effect was not 
observed when the change was from watering before to watering 
after feeding, or from watering after to watering during meals, 
or when the change was in the opposite direction to the last. 
It seems best, therefore, to avoid sudden and unnecessary 
changes in the method of watering. 

174. Soundness in horses. — A horse with a disease or a 
vice that interferes with his usefulness or makes him incapable 
of reasonable work is termed unsound. The term serviceably 
sound is often used to indicate horses that have no defects 



324 Effective Farming 

that make them unfit for the use for which they are sold. In 
the Chicago horse market, this term has been abandoned, as 
its use created many opportunities for controversy. Some 
unsoundnesses that unfit a horse for hard service are broken 
wind, unsound eyes, side bones, ring bones, large splints, buck 
knees, curbs, spavins, and large thoroughpins. In Table XIII 
is given the location of the common unsoundnesses and faults 

of horses. 

TABLE XIII 

Location of the Common Unsoundnesses and Faults of Horses 

Name Location 

Unsound eyes Head 

Wind broken Body 

Poll evil Head 

Fistula Withers 

Shoulder sweeny Shoulder 

Collar boil Shoulder 

Shoe boil Elbow 

Knee sprung Knee 

Splints Cannons 

Bowed tendons Cannons 

Wind gall Fetlock joint 

Grease Fetlock joint 

Ring bones Pastern 

Side bone Cornets 

Quittor Cornets 

Founder Feet 

Thrush Feet 

Quarter crack Feet 

Toe crack Feet 

Broken ilium Hips 

Knocked-down hip Hips 

Hip sweeny Hips 

Dislocated patella Stifle 

Bone spavin Hock 

Bog spavin . Hock 

Thoroughpin Hock 

Curb Hock 

Capped hock Hock 

175. Determining age of horses. — The following is a de- 
scription of the method employed in determining age in 



Horses 325 

horses, as published by the United States Department of 
Agriculture. 

'' Until a horse is over 10 years old the teeth furnish an in- 
dication of age which is fairly accurate. In estimating the 
age of a horse, only the three pairs of front teeth or nippers 
on each jaw are considered. Horses, like human beings, have 
two sets of teeth ; the first set, known as milk teeth, being re- 
placed by permanent teeth. New teeth have deep cups, or 
indentations, at their centers. As the teeth wear down these 
cups disappear. 

" A colt does not usually get its first pair of nippers until it 
is a few days old, but has all three pairs by the time it is 6 to 
10 months old. Until a colt is 3 years old, however, its general 
appearance is relied upon largely to indicate its age. Follow- 
ing is a description of the yearly changes which ordinarily 
occur in the teeth of a horse. 

'' One year. — The center pair of milk incisors, known as the 
pinchers, and the pair next to them, known as the intermediates, 
are well through the gums and in contact, but the corner pairs 
do not yet meet on a level. 

'' Two years. — The pinchers and the intermediates indicate 
that they are being crowded by the permanent teeth, as they 
are pushed free from their gums at the base. By the time the 
colt is 2^ years old the middle pinchers should be through. 
The permanent teeth are much larger than the temporary ones. 

'' Three years. — The middle pinchers are large enough for 
use. Their deep cups show plainly. The milk intermediates 
are about to be shed. 

'' Four years. — The permanent intermediates appear at 
3-|- years and are ready for use at 4. The corner teeth give 
evidence that the permanent corners are coming. The cups 
in the pinchers are about one-third gone. (The tusks, or 
canine teeth, of male colts may appear about this time.) 

'' Five years. — The temporary corner teeth are shed at 4-J 
and the permanent ones are ready to use. The horse has now 



326 Effective Farming 

what is known as a full mouth, all permanent incisors being 
ready to use. The cups of the first pair are about two-thirds gone. 

'' Six years. — The cups in the center pair have nearly dis- 
appeared. In the second pair they are about two-thirds gone. 

'^ Seven years. — The cups from the second pair are now 
gone. There is a notch in the upper corner tooth where it 
overlaps the lower one. 

'^ Eight years. — The cups having all worn out of the lower 
nippers, we now look at the upper jaw. Although cups remain 
in the center pair, they are not deep. 

'' Nine years. — The cups in the center pair of nippers on the 
upper jaw have disappeared. They are still present in the 
other two pairs, being fairly deep in the corner ones. 

" Ten years. — The cups are worn out of the second pair on 
the upper jaw, although they are still present in the corner pair. 

'' Older horses. — At 11 years all of the cups are usually worn 
out of the incisors and it becomes necessary to use some other 
indication. Estimation of age may now be based upon the 
angle at which the teeth meet, their change in size and shape. 
As the horse gets older, the teeth meet more and more at an 
acute angle ; that is, the jaws become more oblique. As the 
teeth wear down, the shape of the worn ends changes from oval 
to more nearly round and, finally, in an aged horse, to a nearly 
triangular form. Sometimes cups are cut or burned in the 
teeth of old horses to make their mouths resemble those of 
younger animals. This practice, known as ' Bishoping,' may 
be detected if the shape of the tooth and the absence of the 
ring of enamel which surrounds the natural cup are noted. 
After a horse is 12 years old its condition is more important 
than its age in determining values." 

QUESTIONS 

1. How is the height of horses measured? 

2. Describe a typical draft horse. 

3. Why is good knee and hock action so much desired in heavy- 
harness horses? 



Horses 



327 



4. What quality is of especial importance in roadster horses ? 

5. What gaits must a five-gaited saddler show? 

6. Describe the canter, the rack, the running walk, the fox-trot, 
and the slow pace. 

7. Compare the Percheron and the Clydesdale as to conformation. 

8. Why do breeders of Hackney horses discriminate against horses 
that lack high action ? 

9. Which breeds of horses originated in America? 

10. In determining the market class to which a horse belongs what 
qualities are considered? 

11. Which grain is fed most extensively to horses and why are other 
feeds sought to take its place? 

12. Discuss the question of the proper time to water horses. 

13. What is meant by an unsound horse? 

14. Name some unsoundnesses that unfit a horse for hard service. 

15. What three important qualities should a saddle horse possess? 

EXERCISES 

1. Scoring draft horses. — Study the score-card carefully. The 
one shown here is used by Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, and 
is an exceptionally good one. Notice the relative weights allowed for 
general appearance, head and neck, forequarters, body, hindquarters, 
and action. Read the list of qualifications of each point and decide 
why these qualifications are desired in a draft horse. 

Score-card — Draft Horses for Market 



Scale of Points 



Stand- 
ard 



Points 
Deficient 



Stu- 
dent's 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 



General appearance — 19 per cent : 

1. Height, estimated .... hands; actual .. 

hands 

2. Weight, over 1600 lb., estimated lb. 

actual lb., according to age 

3. Form, broad, massive, well proportioned, 

blocky, symmetrical 

4. Quality, refined ; bone clean, hard, large 

strong ; tendons clean, defined ; skin and 
hair fine ; feather, if present, silky . 

5. Temperament, energetic ; disposition good 



328 



Effective Farming 



Score-card — Draft Horses for Market 


(Continued) 






Stand- 
ard 


Points 
Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 


Head and neck — 9 per cent : 

6. Head, lean, proportionate size ; profile straight 


1 
1 

1 

2 

1 

1 
2 

3 

1 
2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

8 

3 

2 
2 

2 
2 

1 






7. Ears, medium size, well carried, alert . 






8. Forehead, broad, full 






9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, same color . . . 
10. Lower jaw, angles wide, clean 










11. Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, open, free from 

discharge ; lips thin, even, firm .... 

12. Neck, well muscled, arched; throatlatch 

clean ; windpipe large 

Forequarters — 24 per cent : 

13. Shoulders, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, 

extending into back 

14. Arm, short, strongly muscled, thrown back, 

well set . 


















15. Forearm, strongly muscled, wide, clean . . 

16. Knees, deep, straight, wide, strongly sup- 










17. Cannons, short, wide, clean ; tendons defined, 
set back 






18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean . . . 

19. Pasterns, moderate length, sloping, strong, 










20. Feet, large, even size, sound ; horn dense, 

waxy; sole concave; bars strong; frog 
large, elastic ; heel wide and one-fourth to 
one-half the lineal length of toe .... 

21. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line 

from the point of the shoulder should fall 
upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern, 
and foot. From the side, a perpendicular 
line dropping from the center of the elbow 
joint should fall upon the center of the knee 
and pastern joints and back of the hoof . 
Body — 9 per cent : 

22. Chest, deep, wide, large girth 

23. Ribs, long, well sprung, close ; coupUng strong 

24. Back, straight, broad, strongly muscled . . 

25. Loins, wide, short, thickly muscled . . . 
2fi TTndprliTip low flanks full 





































Horses 



329 



Score-card — Draft Horses for Market (Continued) 



Scale of Points 



Hindquarters — 30 per cent : 

27. Hips, broad, smooth, level, well muscled . . 

28. Croup, not markedly drooping, wide, heavily 

muscled 

29. Tail, stylishly set and carried 

30. Quarters, deep, broad, heavily muscled, 

thighs strong 

31. Gaskins, long, wide, heavily muscled . . . 

32. Hocks, large, clean, strong, wide, well set . 

33. Cannons, short, wide, clean ; tendons defined 

34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean . 

35. Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean . 

36. Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, 

waxy; sole concave; bars strong; frog 
large, elastic ; heel wide, and one-fourth 
to one-half the lineal length of the toe . 

37. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line 

from the point of the buttock should fall 
upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern, 
and foot. From side, a perpendicular line 
from the hip joint should fall upon the 
center of the foot and divide the gaskin in 
the middle, and a perpendicular line from 
the point of the buttock should run parallel 

with the line of the cannon 

Action — 9 per cent : 

38. Walk, fast, elastic, regular, straight 

39. Trot, free, springy, balanced, straight . 



Total 100 



Stand- 
ard 



Points 
Deficient 



Stu- 
dent's 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 



With a draft horse before you mark in the space for student's score 
the weight you think should be given to each point. Seldom will two 
persons score an animal alike in all points or even in total score. Two 
good judges may differ in the relative worth of the different points, but 
when comparing one animal with another they are likely to agree as 
to which one is the better. 

If an animal is nearly perfect in any point do not make a deduction, 



330 Effective Farming 

or cut, but write the full amount in the space provided. If a point is 
not up to standard, make a cut ; write what you think the animal is 
worth in thia particular point. It is not advisable to make a cut of 
less than .25 and seldom will an animal be so deficient that a cut of half 
the rating of the point will be made. There can be no set rule for 
making cuts, because, as stated previously, two judges will seldom agree 
as to the relative value of a point ; consequently, they would not agree 
as to the amount the point should be cut. After all the points have 
been rated add the numbers representing the relative weights ; the 
sum is the score of the animal. A horse that scores 80 is a good one ; 
do not be surprised if you find animals scoring less than this amount. 

2. Comparative judging of draft horses. — After having had prac- 
tice in scoring draft horses, you should learn to do comparative judging 
— that is, when two or more horses are placed together to select the 
best individual, the next best, and so on, without the aid of the score- 
card. To do this proceed as follows : Observe the general method of 
viewing the animals as given when scoring them. Study the horses 
by making comparisons part by part. For example study the general 
appearance of all the animals and determine in which points one animal 
is better than another and how a second is better than a third. Then, 
in your notebook, designate in which order they should be placed in 
general appearance, stating your reasons for placing them thus. Next, 
follow the same plan for forequarters and so on through the list on the 
score-card. With your notes before you, taking into consideration the 
relative weights of the different points, decide which horse is the best, 
which one is next best, and so on until you have them placed in order 
of merit. 

After you have had considerable practice in judging it will not be 
necessary to make so many notes. You will be able to carry in mind 
the relative qualities of the different animals and decide which ones 
excel in the most points. 

3. Judging light horses. — After having had practice in judging 
heavy horses you should be able to place light horses in order of merit 
by comparing the different qualities. The descriptions of the light 
horses of the different types have been given on previous pages. Study 
these descriptions and the score-card for light horses given here\\nth 
and place the horses accordingly. 



Horses 

Score-card for Light Horses' 



331 



Scale of Points for Gelding 


Per- 
fect 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


1. Age 

General appearance — 12 points : 

2. Weight 

3. Height 

4. Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish 


"4 

4 
4 

1 

1 
1 

1 

1 
1 

2 

1 
2 

2 
2 

1 
3 

6 
4 






5. Quality, bone clean, fine, yet indicating suffi- 
cient substance ; tendons defined, hair and 
skin fine 






6. Temperament, active, good disposition . 






Head and neck — 6 points : 

7. Head, lean, straight 






8. Muzzle, fine, nostrils large, lips thin, even . 






9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, large 






10. Forehead, broad, full . . 






11. Ears, medium size, pointed, well carried, and 
not far apart 






12. Neck, muscled ; crest high ; throat latch fine ; 
windpipe large 






Forequarters — 23 points : 

13. Shoulders, long, smooth, well muscled ; oblique, 
extending into back and muscled at withers 






14. Arm, short, thrown forward 






15. Forearm, muscled, long, w4de 






16. Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly 
supported 






17. Cannons, short, wide ; sinews large, set back 






18. Fetlocks, wide, straight 






19. Pasterns, strong, angle with ground 45° . 






20. Feet, medium, even size, straight; horn 

dense ; frog large, elastic ; bars strong ; sole 
concave ; heel wide, high 

21. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from 

the point of the shoulders should fall upon 
the center of the knee, cannon, pastern, and 
foot. From the side, a perpendicular line 
dropping from the center of the elbow joint 
should fall upon the center of the knee and 
pastern joints and back of hoof .... 















From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 487. 



332 Effective Farming 

Score-card for Light Horses (Continued) 



Scale of Points for Gelding 


Per- 
fect 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Body — 9 points : 

22. Chest, deep, low, large girth 


2 

2 
2 
2 
1 

1 
2 
1 
2 
2 
2 
7 
2 
1 
2 

4 

4 

5 
15 






23. Ribs, long, sprung, close 






24. Back, straight, short, broad, muscled . . . 






25. Loin, wide, short, thick 






26. UnderHne, long ; flank let down .... 






Hindquarters — 30 points : 

27. Hips, smooth, wide, level 






28. Croup, long, wide, muscular 






29. Tail attached high, well carried 






30. Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open angled 






3L Quarters, heavily muscled, deep .... 






32. Gaskins or lower thighs, long, wide, muscular 






33. Hocks, clearly defined ; wide, straight . . 






34. Cannons, short, wide ; sinews large, set back 






35. Fetlocks, wide, straight 






36. Pasterns, strong, sloping 

37. Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn 

dense ; frog large, elastic ; bars strong ; 
sole concave ; heel wide, high .... 






38. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular Hne 
from the point of the buttock should fall 
upon the center of the hock, cannon, pas- 
tern, and foot. From the side, a perpen- 
dicular Hne from the liip joint should fall 
upon the center of the foot and divide the 
gaskin in the middle ; and a perpendicular 
line from the point of the buttock should 
run parallel with the line of the cannon . 






Action — 20 points : 

39. Walk, elastic, quick, balanced . . . . 






40. Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high .... 






Total 


100 













Note to Teachers. — In this volume space is not available for 
considering the subject of stock-judging very extensively ; in fact, a 
volume of several hundred pages is necessary to cover the subject thor- 
oughly ; such volumes are listed in the references. If much time can be 
devoted to stock-judging in your school, it will be well to adopt a 



Horses 333 

specific book on the subject. The bulletins and circulars listed as 
references are used in many schools as guides to the study of stock- 
judging. 

Frequent practice in scoring and judging of live-stock is necessary 
if the pupils are to become at all proficient in the work. 

REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H,, Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 415- 
507. The Macmillan Co. 

Plumb, C. S., Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. Ginn and Co. 

Plumb, C. S., Beginnings in Animal Husbandry. Webb Publishing Co. 

Hunt, T. F., and Burkett, C. W., Farm Animals. Orange Judd Co. 

Curtis, R. S., Live Stock Judging and Selection. Lea & Febiger. 

Crsiig, John A., J iidging Livestock. Kenyon Printing Co. Des Moines, 
la. 

Gay, C. W., Principles and Practice of Judging Live-Stock. The 
Macmillan Co. 

Gay, C. W., Productive Horse Husbandry. The Lippincott Co. 

U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 487, Judging Horses. 

Farmers' Bulletin 170, The Principles of Horse Feeding. 

Farmers' Bulletin 667, Breaking and Training Colts. 

Farmers' Bulletin 803, Horse Breeding Suggestions for Farmers. 

Farmers' Bulletin 619, Breeds of Draft Horses. 

Animal Industry Circular 113 (U. S. Department Agriculture), Classi- 
fication for American Carriage Horses. 

Farmers' Bulletin 779, How to Select a Sound Horse. 



CHAPTER XVI 
BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 

Types of cattle. 
Conformation of beef animals. 
Conformation of dual-purpose animals. 
Breeds of beef cattle. 

Shorthorn, Polled Durham, Hereford, Polled Hereford, Aber- 
deen-Angus, Gallowav- 
Breeds of dual-purpose cattle. 

Dual-purpose Shorthorns, Red Poll, Devon. 
Market classes and grades of beef cattle. 
Feeding of beef cattle. 
Rations for beef cattle. 

The number of beef cattle in the United States has greatly 
decreased in recent years. As a result, high prices are paid for 
good beef animals ; this has caused a greater interest in the pro- 
duction of beef and many farmers are now going into this line 
of work. Until recently, the Central States and the western 
plains produced most of the beef cattle of the country, but now 
many herds are to be found in the East and the South. 

176. Types of cattle. — Cattle kept primarily for the pro- 
duction of beef are known as beef cattle ; those kept primarily 
for the production of milk, as dairy cattle ; and those kept 
for the production of both beef and milk, as dual-purpose cattle. 
Beef cattle have been carefully developed with the idea of pro- 
ducing a maximum quantity of best quality beef. The cows 
give milk enough for their calves, but little more. Beef ani- 
mals are not satisfactory for milk production. Dairy cattle 
have been developed for the secretion of large quantities of 
milk and are undesirable for beef. Dual-purpose cattle have 

334 



Beef and Dual-purpose Cattle 



335 



been developed to produce females that will yield a fair quantity 
of milk and bear offspring that are desirable for beef. This 
chapter deals with beef and dual-purpose animals, discussion 
of dairy cattle being reserved for a later chapter. The ex- 
ternal parts of the beef and dual-purpose animals are indicated 
in Figs. 130 and 131. 

177. Conformation of beef animals. — Cattle belonging to 
the beef class should possess a certain conformation of body. 



/a. 



;f% 



zz. 






/J.- 



■-\ \ 



-<?■ 



<2/''/ •- 



^^.''' 



mr 



^za 



"30. 



M 



^ 



Fig. 130. — Points of beef cattle, side view. 1, muzzle; 2, mouth; 3, nostril; 
7, eye ; 8, ear ; 9, poll; 10, horn; 11, neck; 12, throat; 13, dewlap; 14, top 
of neck or crest ; 16, top of shoulder ; 17, shoulder ; 18, point of shoulder ; 
19, arm ; 20, shank ; 21, brisket ; 22, topline ; 23, crops ; 25, ribs, or barrel; 
26, fore flank ; 27, back, or chine ; 28, loin ; 29, hind flank ; 30, underline, 
or bottom line; 31, hip, point of hip, hook, or hook bone; 32, rump; 
33, tailhead ; 35, buttocks ; 36, thigh ; 38, hock ; 40, navel. 

They are short in the neck and legs, broad and deep in 
body, well filled along the back, with a good spring of rib, 
and straight top and bottom lines. When viewed from the 
side, the body approaches a parallelogram in shape, as indi- 
cated by the lines in Fig. 132. The butcher desires an ani- 



336 



Effective Farming 



mal with the greatest proportion of high-priced cuts and the 
smallest proportion of low-priced cuts. The different cuts of 
beef with the relative wholesale prices of normal times are 




Fig. 131. — Points of beef cattle, front and rear views. 4, lips; 5, face; 
6, forehead; 15, neck vein, or shoulder; 18, point of shoulder; 21, brisket; 
24, girth; 34, pin bones; 35, buttocks; 37, twist; 39, purse. 



shown in Fig. 133. The best animal from the butcher's stand- 
point is one with the greatest development of the upper half 
of the body and the smallest amount of head, neck, legs, and 

waste . Such an ani- 
mal is most nearly 
approached in the 
parallelogram form 
of the beef animal. 
The feeder of beef 
cattle looks for an 
animal that will 
have this form when 
the feeding period is 
finished, and he de- 

FiG. 132. -A prime steer. The lines show the ^^^^S an individual 

parallelogram shape desired in beef cattle. of gOOd feeding Ca- 



■'..1 




1 1 


r ■ 





Beef and Dual-purpose Cattle 



337 




liMFrK'. \ PRIME \roRTERHOus? /rumPn 

'.?ilbl\CHUCK\P'*irRiB\ 92 lbs. /SIRLOIN/' 25 lbs. 

■ - •■ "'"'^- 68lbs.'' @ ;34lbs./@7cts. 
■ 20chs. 
« 14-cts. \ \\2%c\i! ROUND 

,1— -" \---. ! / '24 lbs. 

■RIBSPLATE\pi.ANi^< ^ 
50 lbs. V 22 lbs. 



FiG. 133. — Cuts of beef. 




pacity, breadth and fullness in the chest and heart gh'th, and 
one in thrifty condition. 

178. Conformation of dual-purpose animals. — Dual-purpose 
animals are less uniform in conformation than beef or dairy cattle. 
Some incline more toward the beef type and others toward the 
dairy type. Com- 
pared with beef ani- 
mals, they show a 
longer neck, less tend- 
ency toward putting 
on fat, and the females 
are better developed 
in the udder, a dairy 
characteristic. 

179. Breeds of 
beef cattle. — The 

beef breeds in the United States are Shorthorn, Polled Durham, 
Hereford, Polled Hereford, Aberdeen Angus, and Galloway. 
Cattle of these breeds are popular with farmers and ranchers 
in the western and central parts of the country where grass and 
corn are abundant. They are also scattered over many parts 

of the South and 
East where beef-rais- 
ing is increasing. 

Shorthorn. — The 
most popular beef 
breed in the United 
States is the Short- 
horn, or Durham 
(Fig. 134). More 
animals of this breed 
than of any other are 
found in this country 
and they are scattered 
over all parts. They 




338 



Effective Farming 



are the largest of any of the beef breeds, the bulls ranging in 
weight from 1800 to 2400 pounds and the cows from 1300 to 
1600 pounds. The color may be red, red and white, white, or 
roan. The animals are fairly low-set, of good length, depth, 
and width, and the body is thickly fleshed. 

Shorthorns are early maturing and fatten easily. The 
steers sell well as feeders and the meat is of high quality. 
The crosses of these cattle with other beef breeds and with 
scrubs result in very desirable beef animals. The Shorthorns 
are not as good rustlers for feed as those of some other 

breeds, but where 
grass is plentiful 
they will make beef 
faster than any 
other breed. They 
have been called the 
farmers' cattle, be- 
cause they fit so 
well into conditions 
on general farms. 

There are three 

important strains 

— the Booth, the 

Scotch, and the Bates. Booth and Scotch Shorthorns are true 

beef cattle, while the Bates Shorthorns are of the dual-purpose 

type. 

Polled Durham. — The Polled Durhams are hornless Short- 
horns. This breed is of recent origin and is becoming popular 
in many sections. Two divisions of this breed are the single- 
standard and the double-standard. The single-standard ani- 
mals were developed by breeding hornless, or muley, cows of any 
breed to pure-bred Shorthorn bulls, then breeding any polled 
offspring to pure-bred Shorthorn bulls and continuing this 
crossing up to the fifth cross. The resulting animals were at 
least 96f per cent Shorthorn blood and were eligible for registry 




Fig. 135. — Polled Durham bull. 



Beef and Dual-purpose Cattle 



339 



in the Polled Durham herd-book, but as they were not pure- 
bred Shorthorns they were not eligible for registry in the 
American Shorthorn herd-book. The double-standard ani- 
mals were produced by breeding pure-bred Shorthorn hornless 
cows to pure-bred Shorthorn bulls. The resulting animals 
being pure-bred Shorthorns were eligible for registry in the 
American Shorthorn herd-book and being polled were also 
eligible to registry in the Polled Durham herd-book. In de- 
veloping the breed, some breeders have inclined more toward 
the beef type and others toward the dual-purpose type with 
the result that the Polled Durhams are now somewhat variable. 
A good representa- 
tive of the breed is 
shown in Fig. 135. 
Observe the general 
Shorthorn charac- 
teristics and the 
polled head. 

Hereford. — In the 
United States the 
Hereford breed 
(Fig. 136) ranks 
second to the Short- 
horn in numbers 
and its popularity 
is increasing. In 
weight they rank well with the Shorthorns, mature bulls 
averaging from 1800 to 2000 pounds and mature cows from 
1200 to 1600 pounds. The animals are red with white mark- 
ings, the color and markings being a- distinguishing charac- 
teristic of the breed. The body is red, varying in different 
animals from a light to a dark shade; a rich medium red, 
not too dark, is most desired by breeders. The white mark- 
ings are on the head and face with the white usually extending 
along the top of the neck and shoulders, on the throat, dew- 







■ ^^^^^^( 






:;.;! 



Fig. 136. — Hereford cow. 



340 Effective Farming 

lap, underline, and legs. Also, a white switch on the tail 
is often found. The white face is so universal and so pro- 
nounced a character that the animals are often called ^' white 
faces." In conformation the body of the Herefords is broad, 
deep, compactly built and is set on short legs. The general 
appearance is that of a low, compact, blocky animal. The 
horns are longer and coarser than those of the Shorthorn ; 
they are wide with waxy tips and curve outward, upward, 
and backward or outward and forward, or outward and down- 
ward. In bulls they are often drooping. The Hereford some- 
times has a sloping rump and thighs lacking in depth and thick- 
ness. In recent years breeders have accomplished much to 
correct these faults. The hair is generally curly and of medium 
length, although short-haired animals are often seen. The 
animals are good rustlers for feed and are well adapted to range 
conditions. They cross well with native stock and have been 
largely used by cattlemen for improving range stock in the 
Southwest. They thrive in the South, cross fairly well with 
the native stock and are able to stand the heat and to sub- 
sist on the rather poor native pastures. They are also very 
popular in the corn-belt. 

Polled Hereford. — A breed of cattle known as Polled Here- 
ford has recently been developed. The breed was produced 
by selecting and breeding Herefords that showed polled char- 
acteristics. Pure-bred Polled Herefords are eligible for registry 
in the American Hereford herd-book and the American Polled 
Hereford record. They are the same as horned Herefords, 
except for the absence of horns. 

Aberdeen- Angus. — The animals of the Aberdeen- Angus 
breed (Fig. 137) are hornless. They are usually smaller than 
the Shorthorns, mature bulls ranging from 2000 to 2200 pounds 
and mature cows from 1200 to 1600 pounds. The desired 
color is solid black. Red animals are sometimes found, but 
they are not popular with breeders. In conformation the 
Angus cattle differ from the Shorthorns and Herefords show- 



Beef and Dual-purpose Cattle 



341 




Fig. 137. — Aberdeen-Angus cow. 



ing more of a barrel-shaped, or cylindrical, body that is more 
compact and smooth. Notice the cylindrical shape of the 
animal shown in Fig. 137. The meat is fine-grained and of the 
highest quality ; the 
breed has won re- 
peatedly in the car- 
cass tests at many 
live-stock shows. 
The animals are 
early maturing and 
fatten well when 
young and are pop- 
ular for baby beef. 
They are not as 
good rustlers for 
feed as the Here- 
fords and for this reason are less popular on the ranges. They 
are becoming popular in the South, ranking next to the Here- 
ford in their adaptabihty to conditions in that section. They 
are found in large numbers in the corn-belt, states. 
Galloway. — An- 
other black, horn- 
less breed of cattle is 
the Galloway (Fig. 
138). In weight 
they are less than 
the Angus, mature 
bulls ranging in 
weight from 1700 
to 1900 pounds and 
mature cows, 1000 
to 1300 pounds. 
The color is black with a brownish tinge. In conformation 
they are low-set and deep ; the body is a little longer and much 
fatter in rib than the Angus and is covered with long, curly 




Fig. Lis. — Galloway bull. 



342 



Effective Farming 



hair. The head, hke the body, is short and broad and is 
covered with long hair. The poll is flatter than that of the 
Angus and the ears are set farther back from the forehead. 
The Galloways are good rustlers, very vigorous, and are able 
to stand a cold climate. They have proved to be very valu- 
able for use on the ranges of northwestern United States and 
western Canada, where they are now found in large numbers. 

180. Breeds of dual-purpose cattle. — The chief dual-pur- 
pose breeds in the United States are certain strains of the Short- 
horn, the Red Poll, and the Devon. Dual-purpose cattle are 




Fig. 139. — Dual-purpose Shorthorns. 



popular with farmers who keep a few cattle on which they 
depend for milk and butter for the family, and for offspring 
that will sell readily for beef. Since beef and dairy animals 
must be entirely different in type, it is impossible to produce 
a breed that will combine the functions of both and be superior 
for both purposes. However, it is possible for an animal 
to be a fair milker and at the same time produce calves that 
make good, but not the best, beef animals. 

Dual-purpose Shorthorns. — The most popular cattle for 



Beef and Dual-purpose Cattle 



343 



dual-purpose are the Shorthorns. Formerly most of the ani- 
mals were of the Bates strain, but recently many of the Scotch 
strain have been used. Dual-purpose Shorthorn cows are 
longer in the legs, larger in the barrel, and thinner in the quar- 
ters than those of the beef type. The bulls approach the beef 
type more than do the cows. Calves from dual-purpose Short- 
horns usually fatten well and make a good quaUty of beef. 
Fig. 139 shows a group of dual-purpose Shorthorn cows that 
have good milking 
qualities. 

Red Poll — This 
is strictly a dual- 
purpose breed. In 
size the animals are 
smaller than most 
of the beef breeds, 
mature bulls weigh- 
ing from 1700 to 
2100 pounds and 
mature cows from 
1100 to 1350 pounds. The color ranges from hght to dark 
red, a deep, rich red being preferred by breeders. The animals 
are without horns, the head is lean and of medium length, 
the poll sharp and covered with a tuft of hair. The neck 
is longer and thinner than in the beef breeds. The chest is 
well developed and the ribs well sprung, but the body lacks 
the thick covering of flesh of strictly beef animals. The barrel 
is larger than in the beef breeds (a dairy characteristic) and 
the hindquarters are lighter fleshed. The udder is usually 
well developed, being more like that of dairy than of beef ani- 
mals. This character is shown in Fig. 140. The breed is 
popular in Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Texas, Nebraska, 
and Michigan. As a breed they lack somewhat in uniformity. 

Devon. — The Devon is one of the oldest breeds of cattle. 
The cows are good milkers and the steers are good for beef and 



!»-"*«•*' «| 1 


P»- -^^"^M 


■^ 


^~W^ X ~ 


' 1 , ^^ 



Fig. 140. — Red Poll cow. 



344 Effective Farming 

as oxen are unsurpassed. The Devon is not now especially 
popular in the United States, due probably to oxen not being 
used extensively as beasts of burden. In size the animals 
are smaller than Red Polls, mature bulls ranging in weight 
from 1500 to 2000 pounds and mature cows from 1100 to 1400 
pounds. The color is solid red, a rich bright red being the most 
desired shade. In conformation the animals incline more 
toward the beef than the dairy type. The cows are fair milk- 
ers and, although the steers fatten more slowly than those of 
the beef breeds, they produce meat of good quality and fine 
texture. 

181. Market classes and grades of beef cattle. — Variations 
in the weight, condition, quality, and age of the beef cattle 
sent to the live-stock markets make it necessary to establish 
different market classes and grades. Often, however, owing to 
the fluctuation in the supply and demand of cattle on the market, 
there is variation from day to day in the classes. For example, 
a lot of cattle one day might class as butcher stock and another 
day, when the demand for cattle was less, they might class as 
stockers and feeders. (See Table XIV.) Nevertheless, the 
classes are fairly distinct and breeders and feeders of beef 
cattle can, by studying the published market reports, keep 
familiar with market conditions. In Table XIV are given the 
market classes and grades of cattle on the Chicago market, as 
pubhshed in an Illinois Station bulletin by H. W. Mumford. 

Beef cattle are steers ready for the block. (See Fig. 132.) 
They are in demand by exporters, packers, and shippers. Ex- 
porters usually send them to England, packers slaughter them 
for dressed beef, and shippers send them to some other live- 
stock market. Butcher stock includes cattle that have been 
" warmed up," a term used to designate cattle that have been 
on full feed only a short time and are not, therefore, in prime 
condition. It also includes the better grades of heifers, cows, 
and bulls that can be slaughtered for dressed beef. Canners 
are inferior animals that are used for canned meat. Cutters 



Beef and Dual-purpose Cattle 



345 



TABLE XIV 

Market Classes and Grades of Beef Cattle 

Beef cattle .... Prime steers 

Choice steers 

Good steers 

Medium steers 

Common rough steers 
Butcher stock . . . Prime heifers 

Choice heifers 

Good heifers 

Medium heifers 

Prime cows 

Choice cows 

Good cows 

Medium cows 

Common rough steers 

Choice bulls 

Good bulls 

Medium bulls 
Canners and cutters . Good cutters 

Medium cutters 

Common cutters and good canners 

Medium canners 

Inferior canners 

Bologna bulls 
Stockers and feeders . Fancy selected feeders 

Choice feeders 

Good feeders 

Medium feeders 

Common feeders 

Inferior feeders 

Feeder buUs 

Fancy selected yearling stockers 

Choice yearling stockers 

Good yearling stockers 

Medium yearling stockers 

Common yearling stockers 

Inferior yearling stockers 

Good stock heifers 

Medium stock heifers 

Common stock heifers 
Veal calves .... Choice calves 

Good calves 

Medium calves 

Common calves 
Milkers and springers 



346 Effective Farming 

are of a slightly better grade than canners and carry sufficient 
flesh to allow the loin and ribs to be sold over the butcher's 
block ; the other parts of the carcass are used for canned meat. 
Feeders are animals intended for immediate use in the feed 
lot. Stockers are animals too young for immediate use as 
feeders ; after attaining more growth they are placed in the feed 
lot. Veal calves are those of suitable age, condition, and weight 
to sell, when slaughtered, as veal. A milker is a cow in milk 
or one with a calf at her side. A springer is a cow advanced 
in pregnancy. Baby beef cattle include prime or choice steers 
between one and two years of age that have the desired beef 
conformation and show good killing quality. 

182. Feeding of beef cattle. — As a business, the feeding of 
beef cattle is changing rapidly. Formerly feeders were grown 
on the western ranges and shipped to the corn-belt where they 
were fed for a time and then sold for beef. The western ranges 
are fast being settled by farmers and the large pastures are no 
longer available. As a result feeders from the Western States 
are becoming fewer in number. On many farms in the corn- 
belt states where a large proportion of the land is too rough 
for economical tillage, feeders can be raised advantageously. 
The southern farmer also has good opportunities for raising 
and fattening heel cattle and many are taking advantage of 
these conditions. 

183. Rations for beef cattle. — Corn is the grain used largely 
in feeding beef cattle. It is supplemented by various by-prod- 
uct feeds. Stover and straw are largely used as roughage. 
Leguminous hays, including alfalfa, clover, and cowpeas, are 
often fed to the animals with good results. Silage also is used 
extensively. It saves grain in proportion to the amount of 
mature ears in the silage. 

Rations will be affected, of course, by the feed available and 
by the purpose of the feeding — whether the cattle are being 
fattened or are being carried over the winter with no attempt to 
fatten them. Below are given some sample rations adapted 



Beef and Dual-purpose Cattle 



347 



from Harper. They are based on a weight of 1000 pound 
animals and are fed in proportion to the weight of the animals : 

Rations for Wintering Cattle 

783 pound steer : 788 'pound steer : 

Shelled corn, 6 pounds Cowpea hay, 20 pounds 

Clover hay, 19 pounds 74S pound steer 

767 pound steer : Silage, 44 pounds 

Shelled corn, 4 pounds 707 pound steer : 
Corn stalks, 9 pounds Corn stalks, 20 pounds 

Clover hay, 9 pounds 

Rations for Fattening Cattle 

>^57 pound calves: 1010 pound steers: 

Shelled corn, 22 pounds Shelled corn, 16 pounds 

Cottonseed meal, 3 pounds Cottonseed meal, 3 pounds 

Clover hay, 12 pounds Clover hay, 4 pounds 

63Ji- pound calves: Corn silage, 15 pounds 

Shelled corn, 18 pounds 979 pound steers: 
Cottonseed meal, 2h pounds Snapped corn, 10 pounds 

Clover hay, 5 pounds Prairie hay, 12 pounds 

Corn silage, 18 pounds Alfalfa hay, 10 pounds 

854 pound yearling steers: 893 pound steers: 
Shelled corn, 19 pounds Ear corn, 20 pounds 

Cottonseed meal, 2\ pounds Clover hay, 10 pounds 

Clover hay, 4^ pounds 
Corn silage, 18 pounds 

Ward in Farm^ers' Bulletin 578 gives the following sample 
rations for 1000 pound steers when silage is to be fed : 

Sample Rations with Silage 

for the corn-belt 

Ration 1 

Pounds 

Corn silage 25 

Corn stover 6 

Cottonseed meal or oil meal , . 3 

Shelled corn 14 

Ration 2 

Corn silage , ... 25 

Clover hay 7 

Shelled corn 15 



348 Effective Farming 

FOR THE EASTERN STATES WHERE HAY IS VERY HIGH AND CORN IS 
RELATIVELY HIGH 

Pounds 

Corn silage 30 

Corn stover 6 

Cottonseed meal or oil meal 4 

Shelled corn 10 

FOR THE SOUTH WHERE COTTONSEED MEAL IS OF MODERATE PRICE AND 
COWPEA HAY IS RAISED ON THE FARM 

Ration 1 

Pounds 

Corn silage 35 

Cowpea hay 8 

Cottonseed meal or oil meal 7 

Ration 2 

Pounds 

Corn silage 30 

Cottonseed hulls 12 

Cottonseed meal 7 



FOR THE WEST WHERE CORN CANNOT BE RAISED 

Ration 1 

Pounds 

Kafir silage 30 

Prairie hay 3 

Cottonseed meal 3 

Kafir meal 10 

Ration 2 

Pounds 

Kafir silage 25 

Alfalfa 7 

Kafir grain 15 

QUESTIONS 

1. Define beef cattle, dairy cattle, dual-purpose cattle. 

2. Describe the conformation of beef cattle. 

3. Which is the most popular beef cattle breed ? 

4. The animals of which breed are especially good rustlers for feed ? 

5. Compare animals of the Galloway and Aberdeen-Angus breeds. 

6. What is meant by baby beef cattle? 

7. What feeds are most commonly fed to beef cattle? 



Beef and Dual-purpose Cattle 



349 



8. Compare the rations for wintering cattle with those for fatten- 
ing cattle. 

9. Why is the Shorthorn called the farmers' cow? 
10. Which beef breeds are popular in the South? 



EXERCISES 

1. Scoring and judging beef cattle. — Use the score-card given 
herewith, score and judge beef cattle. Follow directions and methods 
outlined for scoring horses as given on a previous page. 

Score-card for Beef Cattle (Fat) ^ 





Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stand- 
ard 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 


General appearance — 40 per cent : 

1. Weight, estimated lb. ; actual 

lb., according to age 


10 
10 

8 

12 

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 

2 
1 

4 

2 

2 






2. Form, straight top and underline ; deep, 
broad, low set, stylish, smooth, compact, 
symmetrical 






3. Quality, fine, soft hair ; loose, pliable skin of 
medium thickness ; dense, clean, medium- 
sized bone 






4. Condition, deep, even covering of firm, mellow 
flesh ; free from patches, ties, lumps, and 
rolls ; full cod and flank indicating finish . 






Head and neck — 7 per cent : 

5. Muzzle, broad, mouth large ; nostrils large 
and open 






6. Eyes, large, clear, placid 






7. Face, short ; jaw strong 






8. Forehead, broad, full 






9. Ears, medium size ; fine texture .... 






10. Neck, short, thick, blending smoothly with 
shoulder ; throat clean with light dewlap . 






Forequarters — 9 per cent : 

11. Shoulder vein, full 






12. Shoulders, smoothly covered, compact, snug, 
neat 






13. Brisket, trim, neat ; breast full 






14. Legs, wide apart, straight, short; arm full; 
shank fine 













From Purdue University Extension Circular No 29. 



350 Effective Farming 

Score-card for Beef Cattle (Fat) (Continued) 





Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Stand- 
ard 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 


Body — 30 per cent : 

15. Chest, full, deep, wide ; girth large ; crops full 


4 

8 

8 
8 
2 

1 

3 
4 

4 

2 






16. Ribs, long, arched, thickly and smoothly 
fleshed 






17. Back, broad, straight, thickly and smoothly 
fleshed 






18. Loin, thick, broad 

19. Flank, full, even with underline 


.... 




Hindquarters — ^14 per cent : 

20. Hips, smooth . . 






21. Rump, long, wide, level; tail-head smooth; 

pin-bones wide apart, not prominent . 

22. Thighs, deep, full 










23. Twist, deep, plump 

24. Legs, wide apart, straight, short ; shanks fine, 

smooth 










Total 


100 













2. The cuts of beef and veal. — An important study in agriculture 
is the disposition of the carcass after the animals are slaughtered for 
meat. Many facts about this matter can be learned by visiting a local 
packing house or butcher shop. Bulletin 147 by the University of 
Illinois is a very excellent treatment of this subject. It contains about 
one hundred fifty pages and seventy-five illustrations from original 
carcasses and cuts of meat and it shows the Chicago method of cutting 
meat. It is not distributed except to persons especially interested in 
the subject, but an abstract of the bulletin is for general use and dis- 
tribution. By explaining to the Director of the station the use that 
will be made of the bulletin the teacher can undoubtedly secure a few 
copies of the complete pamphlet for reference and enough copies of the 
abstract for class use. 

Teachers should arrange with a packer or a butcher to take the class 
to his place of business. Usually these men are willing to aid in teaching 
about the cuts of meat. In some sections the local butchers do not 
follow the Chicago method of cutting beef ; however, the methods will" 
not differ very materially. In which part of the carcass are the expen- 



Beef and Dual-purpose Cattle 351 

sive cuts? The cheaper cuts? Compare the price of porterhouse 
steak with flatrib cuts at your local market. Which are the best rib 
cuts? How many porterhouse steaks in a carcass? Why does a 
butcher like a beef animal to be in good condition ? 

REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia oj American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 48-50; 

317-321. The Macmillan Co. 
Mumford, H. W., Beef Production. Published by the author, Urbana, 

111. 
Plumb, C. S., Beginnings in Animal Husbandry. Webb Publishing 

Co. 
Harper, M. W., Animal Husbandry for Schools. The Macmillan Co. 
Animal Industry Bulletin 34 (U. S. Department of Agriculture), 

American Breeds of Beef Cattle. 
Farmers' Bulletin 612, Breeds of Beef Cattle. 
Farmers' Bulletin 580, Beef Production in the South. 
Farmers' Bulletin 655, Cottonseed Meal for Feeding Beef Cattle, 
Farmers' Bulletin 811, Production of Baby Beef. 
Farmers' Bulletin 588, Economical Cattle Feeding in the Corn- Belt. 



CHAPTER XVII 
DAIRY CATTLE 

Conformation of dairy cattle. 
Breeds of dairy cattle. 

Jersey, Guernsey, Holstein-Friesian, Ayrshire, Dutch Belted, 
Brown Swiss. 
The dairy calf. 

Teaching a calf to drink. 

Kind of milk for calves. 

Grain and hay for calves. 

Sanitation in calf pens. 
Feeding dairy cows in summer. 

Cows on pasture. 

Soiling crops and silage for summer feeding. 
Feeding dairy cows in winter. 

Succulent feeds for winter. 

Dry roughages for winter. 

Concentrates in the ration. 

Quantities of grains and roughages to feed. 
Water and salt for cows. 
Stables for dairy cows. 

Light. 

Ventilation. 

Convenience of arrangement. 

Floors. 

Ties for the cattle. 

A modern sanitary dairy stable. 

The breeds of dairy cattle have been highly developed. 
They are specialized for the production of milk and butter-fat. 
The dairy cow is a marvelous organism. We feed her grain, 
by-products of the factory, silage, hay, and in return she yields 
us milk in enormous quantities and of high nutritive value. 

352 



Dairy Cattle 



353 



There are records of 27,000 and 30,000 pounds of milk a year 
from a single cow, yielding milk of many times her own weight. 
There are also recorded yields of 1200 pounds of butter-fat in 
a year, equivalent to about 1500 pounds of butter. With such 
high production, it is to be expected that the animal requires 
the best of feed and care, and comfortable, well lighted, sani- 
tary stables. Great progress has been made in recent years 
in the care and housing of the dairy cow. 

184. Conformation of dairy cattle. — The larger number 
of dairy cows that secrete large quantities of milk have a dis- 
tinctive conformation, and animals possessing this are said to 
be of the dairy type. Two prominent features of this type are 
spareness of frame 
and a wedge-shaped 
body. The spare 
frame is not due to 
disease or lack of 
feed, but, on the con- 
trary, to the tend- 
ency of the animals 
to convert feed into 
milk and not into 
body fat. In a cow 
of good conforma- 
tion three wedges are 
present. The first is seen when the animal is viewed from 
the side, as shown in Fig. 141. The wedge is not formed by 
lack of chest depth, but by proper chest depth together with 
extreme depth of the rear of the barrel and largeness of the udder. 
The second wedge is seen when the cow is viewed from the 
front. The apex of the wedge is at the withers and the base 
at the floor of the chest. The third wedge is seen when the 
animal is viewed from above. The apex is at the withers and 
the base, from one hip point to the other. An animal having 
the three-wedge shape has abundant abdominal and chest 
2a 




Fig. 141. — Dairy cow, showiiij 
form : side view. 



e-snape 



354 



Effective Farming 

Note Fig. 142, the external 



capacity and udder development, 
parts of the dairy cow. 

185. Breeds of dairy cattle. — The chief breeds of dairy cattle 
raised in the United States are Jersey, Guernsey, Holstein- 
Friesian, and Ayrshire. Secondary breeds are Dutch Belted and 
Brown Swiss. All of these dairy breeds originated in Europe. 

Jersey. — The Jersey breed originated on the Island of 
Jersey, which lies in the English channel about thirteen miles 



H/PBOA/£r^ !* - 




i^^PO/^eNEAO 



4\'\'\\it>Miiii- 



Fig. 142. — Points of the dairy cow. 

from the coast of France. It is thought that the foundation 
stock was from Normandy and Brittany. These early cattle 
were rough and not developed in the milk-giving quality, but 
from this foundation has been developed an excellent breed of 
cattle. In 1779 a law was passed prohibiting the importation 
of cattle into Jersey and this law has always been rigidly en- 
forced, with the result that the cattle have been purely bred 
for more than a century. 

Jerseys have been imported to a large extent into the United 
States and have increased in number so rapidly and have proved 



Dairy Cattle 



355 



so well adapted to the wide range of climate conditions that 
they are to be found in large numbers in all parts of the country. 

The Jerseys are the smallest of the chief dairy breeds, the 
cows averaging in weight from 700 to 1000 pounds and the bulls 
from 1200 to 1800 pounds. The color is variable, ranging 
through all shades of brown and black, and various shades 
of fawn, yellow, red, and brindle. With the colors there may 
or may not be present large or small patches of white; those 
animals showing white patches are known as broken-colored 
and those without, as solid-colored animals. Characteristics 
usually present in 
Jerseys are a black 
muzzle, which is 
surrounded by a 
ring of light-colored 
skin and hair, a 
black tongue, and a 
black switch. 

In their native 
home the Jerseys 
have been bred for 
high butter produc- 
tion and not for 
high milk yield. American breeders have accomplished much 
toward increasing the milk yield and at the same time have 
kept up the percentage of fat in the milk. As found in America 
to-da}^, the Jersey gives a moderate quantity of milk that is 
rich in fat, averaging about 5 per cent ; in the quantity of 
butter that can be made from the milk, she ranks very high. 
Fig. 143 shows Eminent's Bess, a high-yielding Jersey cow. 
Study the Jersey characteristics of this animal. 

Guernsey. — Guernsey, one of the Channel Islands, is the 
native home of this breed. The original stock, like that of 
Jersey, came from the mainland of France and has been de- 
veloped by careful breeding and selection of the animals. The 




Fig. 143. — Jersey cow, Eminent's Bess, 209,719. 
Yearly record, 18,781 pounds, 15.6 ounces milk 
testing 962 pounds, 13.2 ounces fat equal to 1132 
pounds, 12 ounces butter. 



356 



Effective Farming 



policy of excluding all outside cattle has existed in Guernsey 
as in Jersey, with the, result that the purity of the animals is 
unquestioned. 

There have been fewer importations of Guernseys into the 
United States than of Jerseys ; nevertheless the animals are 
found in all parts of the country and their popularity is increas- 
ing rapidly. In size the cattle are somewhat larger than Jerseys, 
mature cows averaging about 1050 pounds, and bulls, about 
1500 pounds. Often the cows will weigh 1200 pounds. Yellow 
and orange with large patches of white are the predominating 

colors, but darker 
shades approaching 
brown are some- 
times found, espe- 
cially on bulls. The 
muzzles are nearly 
always buff or flesh- 
colored surrounded 
by light-colored 
hair. A characteris- 
tic of the breed is a 
secretion of a yel- 
low coloring matter 
from the skin, which 
is especially notice- 
able in the ears, 
around the eyes, and about the udder. In quantity and 
richness of milk. Guernseys are similar to Jerseys, giving a 
moderate quantity relatively rich in butter-fat. The milk 
is more yellow than that of the Jerseys, which is a desirable 
quality, especially in market milk, as it gives the product an 
appearance of richness much desired by consumers. Dairy- 
men who supply whole milk often have at least a few pure-bred 
or high-grade Guernseys in their herds because of this yellow 
color of the milk. In the quantity of butter that can be made 





:*?^„ ^ 


;i 


1 




•^ 
'"^ 


L 


■*f^^^ 





Fig. 144. — Guernsey cow, Johanna Chenc, 30,889. 
As a three-year-old, she produced 16,186.70 pounds 
milk testing 863.36 pounds fat. 



Dairy Cattle 



357 



from the milk, the animals rank with the Jerseys. Fig. 144 
shows a well known Guernsey cow, Johanna Chene. 

Holstein-Friesian. — The breed of black-and-white cattle 
known as the Holstein-Friesian originated in North Holland 
and Friesland where they have been purely bred for two thou- 
sand years or more. The dairy industry in Holland has been 
highly developed and the cattle have always been well cared for 
and fed abundantly. 

Many importations have been made into the United States 
and the animals have increased rapidly in number. They are 
now found in all 
parts of the coun- 
try, but more es- 
pecially in dairy 
regions where high 
yield of milk is de- 
sired. In size the 
animals are the 
largest of the dairy 
breeds; mature 
cows often weigh 
1500 pounds and 
seldom less than 
1200 pounds; ma- 
ture bulls often go 
above 2500 pounds. 




Fig. 145. — Holstein-Friesian cow, Dutchess Sky- 
lark Ormsby, 124,513. World's record cow, 1915. 
Butter-fat made in one year, 1205.091 pounds. 



The frame of the animal is very large. Their color is strongly 
marked black and white with the two colors in separate irregular 
patches. In some animals the black predominates and in others, 
the white. In milk production Holstein cows excel those of all 
other breeds. The butter-fat percentage, however, is small, but 
with the large quantities of milk, the total butter-fat during a 
definite period of time often equals and in many cases exceeds 
that from animals of other breeds. The color of the milk is 
somewhat bluish and the butter-fat is rather soft and of a 



358 Effective Farming 

whitish color in contrast to the yellow butter-fat of the Jerseys 
and the Guernseys. Holstein milk is sometimes discriminated 
against by consumers on account of its color and lack of rich- 
ness, but dairymen overcome these objections by having in the 
herd a few Jersey and Guernsey cows. The cut, Fig. 145, is 
of Dutchess Skylark Ormsby, the Holstein cow that made the 
world's record of all breeds for butter-fat in 1915. Her record 
for the year is 1205.091 pounds of fat. This would make more 
than 1500 pounds of butter. Her record for milk is 27,760 
pounds. The milk from the farm where she is owned sold for 
10 cents a quart, which means about $1388 for the product. 

Ayrshire. — The native land of the Ayrshire breed (Fig. 146) 
is the County of Ayr in the southwestern part of Scotland. 




Fig. 146. — Prize-winning Ayrshire cows at Panama Exposition, 1915. 

The animals have been developed by selection and breeding of 
the native cattle of the country with a probable admixture 
of the blood of the other dairy and beef breeds of England. 
Importations of these cattle into the United States have been 
made from time to time, but the animals are not so numerous 
as those of the other dairy breeds. However, many herds 
are to be found, especially in New York and New England 
as well as scattered over other parts of the country. The cattle 
are of medium size, the cows weighing from 900 to 1100 pounds 
at maturity and the bulls from 1400 to 1800 pounds. The 
most common color is red and white spotted, with white pre- 
dominating. In quantity of milk the Ayrshires rank next to 
the Holsteins; in butter-fat the milk averages 3 J to 4 per 



Dairy Cattle 359 

cent. The fat globules of the milk are small and do not separate 
freely from the milk, and the cream has little color. The milk 
is, therefore, better suited for use as whole milk than for 
butter-making. It is stated to be especially desirable for 
invalids and is often sold to hospitals. 

Dutch Belted. — Like the Holsteins the Dutch Belted cattle 
originated in Holland, where they are known as the Lakenfield 
cattle. These cattle have never become numerous in the 
United States, although scattered herds are found in all of the 
principal dairy districts. The animals are of medium size, 
mature cows averaging about 1000 pounds and mature bulls 
about 1500 pounds. The color is black abd white, a broad 
belt of white encircling the body about the middle, with the 
other parts of the body a jet black. In milk production the 
animals are fair, but the quality is not up to the average. 

Brown Swiss. — The native home of these cattle is the Can- 
ton Schwyz in Switzerland, where the breed has been developed 
for dairy purposes from the native cattle found there. Scat- 
tered herds are found in the United States and where they have 
become known the animals have made a favorable impression 
for dairy purposes. The cattle are of medium size, mature 
cows weighing from 1200 to 1400 pounds and mature bulls as 
high as 1800 pounds and over. The color is a grayish brown, 
usually darker on the head, the neck, legs, and hindquarters, 
shading lighter on the body. Characteristic markings are a 
mealy band around the muzzle, a light stripe across the lips 
and up and down the sides of the nostrils, a light-colored tuft 
of hair between the horns, and a light-colored stripe on the back 
and tail. As milk-producers they rank with the average, 
many, however, making very good individual records. The 
average percentage of fat in the milk is 3 J to 4. 

186. The dairy calf. — The calf requires the milk of the 
mother for the first few days after birth. The milk, which 
at this time is called colostrum, is very different in composi- 
tion from normal milk and performs a necessary function 



360 Effective Farming 

in acting as a purgative to rid the calf's body of unnecessary 
matter. The milk remains abnormal for about three or four 
days. Usually the calf is left with its mother during this 
period. 

Teaching a calf to drink. — After the calf has been removed 
from the mother, it must be taught to drink milk from a pail. 
It is well to have the calf hungry when about to give it a lesson. 
In nursing, the calf's head is up and in drinking from a pail, 
it is down. It must, therefore, be taught to drink with its 
head down and the animal must be held. The usual plan is 
to place a quart or so of milk in a pail, back the calf into a corner 
of the yard or stall, straddle its neck, put your finger in its 
mouth, and hold the head down so that the mouth is in the 
milk. The calf will suck the finger for a time, but will soon 
learn to drink the milk. For the first four days, the calf should 
be fed three times a day ; after this, twice a day is often enough. 
How much to feed varies somewhat with the weight of the 
calf. One weighing about sixty-five pounds or less should 
have at the start about six or eight pounds of milk a day and 
larger calves in proportion. Care should be taken not to over- 
feed a calf. The milk must be clean and warm. Indigestion 
and calf scours are very likely to result if cold milk is fed. 
A temperature 100° F. is about right. 

Kind of milk for calves. — A calf should have whole milk 
for at least ten days, after which it may be fed skim-milk. 
The change from whole- to skim-milk should be made gradually. 
The first day substitute a half pound of skim-milk for a half 
pound of whole milk and keep this up for three days, then in- 
crease a pound and a half a day until no more whole milk is 
fed. A calf receiving skim-milk does not get enough fat in its 
feed and to overcome the deficiency dairymen add fat to the 
milk. Usually this fat is from linseed meal, a product rich in 
this material. A mush is made by mixing the meal with hot 
water. For the first day a tablespoonful is given, after which 
the quantity is increased up to three or four tablespoonfuls. 



Dairy Cattle 361 

When the calf has learned to eat grain, as described later, the 
mush need not be fed. 

Grain and hay for calves. — While the change from whole- 
to skim-milk is taking place, the calf should be taught to eat 
grain and hay. A feed box should be provided and a small 
quantity of grain placed in it. At first it may be necessary 
to rub a little grain on the calf's mouth to induce it to eat, 
but soon it will learn to take the grain regularly. The box 
must be kept clean and any grain not eaten must be removed 
to prevent it from becoming sour. Ground oats with the 
hulls sifted out, ground corn, or a mixture of the two may be 
fed. 

The grain ration for the calf up to the time it is six months 
old may be the one described above, or some additional feed 
may often be given to advantage. A good grain mixture is 
three parts ground oats, three parts gro^md corn, one part 
wheat bran, one part linseed meal. At first what can be picked 
up in the hand is sufficient and the amount should be increased 
as the calves will eat it up clean. At two months of age a 
calf should eat about a pound of grain a day and at six months, 
about three pounds. 

Hay should be fed at the same time that the grain is given. 
Fine clean alfalfa or clover hays are good for this purpose. 

Sanitation in calf "pens. — The quarters where calves are 
kept must be clean ; otherwise disease is almost sure to occur. 
Clean bedding must be used and the pens cleaned frequently. 
It is also necessary to disinfect them occasionally. White- 
wash, crude carbolic acid, and proprietary stock dips are good 
disinfectants for this purpose. It is well to spray carbolic 
acid on the walls of the pens and follow this by a coat of white- 
wash. Many of the proprietary preparations, such as kreso, 
lysol, and creolin, are good disinfectants. They may be pur- 
chased from druggists. It is not so important which disin- 
fectant is employed, but that it is used often enough to keep the 
pens sanitary. 



362 Effective Farming 

187. Feeding dairy cows in summer. — Summer and winter 
feeding of dairy cows involve different problems. In summer 
pasturage and soiling crops are available and thus the cows 
can obtain abundant succulent feed, while in winter they are 
confined to stalls and as fresh grass and soihng crops are not 
in season, they must be supplied succulent feed in some other 
way. 

Cows on pasture. — Grass is conducive to medium produc- 
tion, but, even with the best pastures, supplementary feeds 
are necessary for the highest production. For medium pro- 
duction, grass will supply all the food necessary, as it is 
practically a balanced ration for dairy cows. Supplement- 
ing pastures with grain is sometimes advisable. Eckles of 
the Missouri Station suggests the following for cows of the 
different breeds : 

Jersey cow producing — • 

20 pounds of milk daily 3 pounds of grain 

25 pounds of milk daily 4 pounds of grain 

30 pounds of milk daily 6 pounds of grain 

35 pounds of milk daily 8 pounds of grain 

40 pounds of milk daily 10 pounds of grain 

Holstein-Friesian or Ayrshire cow producing — 

25 pounds of milk daily 3 pounds of grain 

30 pounds of milk daily 5 pounds of grain 

35 pounds of milk daily 7 pounds of grain 

40 pounds of milk daily 9 pounds of grain 

50 pounds of milk daily ... , . . 10 pounds of grain 

Concerning these quantities and the rule of feeding, the 
Dairy Division of the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture says : 

While this is, of course, an arbitrary rule and variations should be 
made to suit different conditions and individual cows, it is in accord 
with good feeding practice and probably is as good a rule of its kind 
as has been formulated. 

As grain mixtures for this purpose, the Dairy Division sug- 
gests the following : 



Dairy Cattle 363 

Mixture No. 1 : 

Ground oats 100 pounds 

Wheat bran 100 pounds 

Corn meal 50 pounds 

Mixture No. 2 : 

Wheat bran 100 pounds 

Corn meal 100 pounds 

Cottonseed meal 25 pounds 

Mixture No. 3 : 

Corn-and-cob meal 250 pounds 

Cottonseed meal 100 pounds 

Mixture No. 4 : 

Wheat bran 100 pounds 

Gluten feed 50 pounds 

Corn meal 50 pounds 

Soiling crops and silage for summer feeding. — When pastures 
become short, dairymen often resort to the use of soiling crops 
to supply the green feed. For this purpose, second-growth 
red clover, field peas, or alfalfa give excellent results. The 
advantages of soiling crops are chiefly two : large quantities 
of forage can be grown on a relatively small area and the crops 
are palatable and succulent. One disadvantage is the large 
amount of labor necessary to harvest and feed the crops. A 
succession of crops must be planned in order that green feed 
be available continuously. 

With a silo for use in summer, the dairyman has a supply of 
succulent feed that is easily handled and that has been prepared 
the previous fall at a minimum of expense compared with soil- 
ing crops. The use of silage as summer feed for dairy cows is 
increasing. 

188. Feeding dairy cows in winter. — In winter feeding, 
some important factors are to furnish a supply of abundant 
succulent feed, to use home-grown feeds as far as available and 
economical, and to consider the cost of all feeds carefully in 
order to make a profit. 

Succulent feeds for winter. — Silage and roots are depended 
on for succulence during the winter. Of the two, silage is the 
most used. Among the reasons for the popularity of silage 



364 Effective Farming 

for feeding dairy cows, Woodward of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture gives the following : 

1. Silage is the best and cheapest form in which a succulent feed 
can be provided for winter use. 

2. An acre of corn can be placed in the silo at a cost not exceeding 
that of shocking, husking, grinding, and shredding. 

3. Crops can be put into the silo during weather that could not be 
utilized in making hay or curing fodder ; in some localities this is an 
important consideration. 

4. A given amount of corn in the form of silage will produce more 
milk than the same amount when shocked and dried. 

5. There is less waste in feeding silage than in feeding fodder. 
Good silage properly fed is all consumed. 

6. Silage is very palatable. 

7. Silage, like other succulent feeds, has a beneficial effect upon 
the digestive organs. 

8. More stock can be kept on a given area of land when silage is 
the basis of the ration. 

9. On account of the smaller cost for labor, silage can be used for 
supplementing pastures more economically than can soiling crops, 
unless only a small amount of supplementary feed is required. 

10. Converting the corn crop into silage clears the land and leaves 
it ready for another crop sooner than if the corn is shocked and 
husked. 

From 30 to 40 pounds of silage is the usual quantity fed. 
The rations listed below, which are given by Woodward, have 
been found to be satisfactory. For grain mixtures, see the 
subsequent pages. 

For a 1300-pound cow jdelding 40 pounds of milk testing 3.5 

per cent : 

Pounds 

Silage 40 

Clover, c.owpea, or alfalfa hay . 10 

Grain mixture 10 

For the same cow yielding 20 pounds of 3.5 per cent milk : 

Pounds 

Silage 40 

Clover, cowpea, or alfalfa hay 5 

Grain mixture 5 



Dairy Cattle 365 

For a 900-pouiid cow yielding 30 pounds of 5 per cent milk : 

Pounds 
Silage 30 

Clover, cowpea, or alfalfa hay 10 

Grain mixture 11 

For the same cow yielding 15 pounds of 5 per cent milk : 

Pounds 

Silage 30 

Clover, cowpea, or alfalfa hay 8 

Grain mixture 5 

The quantity of nutrients grown to the acre in root-crops is 
small compared to the cost of production. However, they have 
an advantage over silage for small herds because a small quantity 
can be preserved and fed each day, whereas with silage a cer- 
tain minimum number of cows must be kept in order to make it 
practicable, since enough silage must be removed from the silo 
each day to prevent excessive fermentation. As to the choice 
of root-crops to grow for this purpose, mangels furnish a desir- 
able feed for the cows and make the greatest yield. Other 
kinds of beets and carrots are, also, good feeds. Turnips may 
be fed, but always after milking, as they impart a bad flavor 
to the milk if fed immediately before milking. 

Dry roughages for winter. — The best dry roughages for dairy 
cows to be fed in connection with silage or roots are hays from 
legumes such as alfalfa, red clover, crimson clover, alsike clover, 
cowpeas, soybeans, or field peas (grown with oats). These 
hays add a large proportion of protein to the ration and to use 
them cuts down the cost of this ingredient. Corn stover, 
grass, or grain hays are often fed to dairy cows, especially when 
the crops can be grown on the farm where fed, but as these 
roughages are low in protein, the deficiency must be supplied 
by the use of high-protein concentrates. The usual quantity 
of dry roughage fed is from eight to ten pounds a day, in addi- 
tion to the silage. 

Concentrates in the ration. — A cow cannot eat enough 
roughage to supply all the nutrients necessary for a maximum 
flow of milk ; consequently concentrates in the form of grain 



366 Effective Farming 

or factory by-products must be added to the ration. The 
grains most commonly fed are corn, oats, barley, and rye. The 
by-products used extensively are wheat bran, wheat middlings, 
linseed meal, cottonseed meal, gluten meal, gluten feed, hom- 
iny feed, brewers' grains, malt sprouts, distillers' grains, beet- 
pulp, molasses, buckwheat middlings, cocoanut meal, and 
peanut meal. 

In making up a grain mixture for the cattle, many factors 
must, of necessity, be considered. A few simple rules and direc- 
tions and a number of grain mixtures as given by the Dairy 
Division of the United States Department of Agriculture are 
printed herewith : 

1. Make up the mixture to fit the roughage available. With 
roughage entirely of the low-protein class the grain should contain 
approximately from 18 to 22 per cent of protein, while with exclusively 
high-protein roughage the grain ration need contain only about 13 to 
16 per cent. 

2. Select grains that will furnish the various constituents, especially 
protein, at the least cost, using home-grown grains if possible. 

3. Be sure that the mixture is light and bulky. 

4. The mixture should be palatable. 

5. See that the grain has the proper physiological effect upon the 
cow. 

Samples of Grain Mixtures to Be Fed with Various Roughages 

with low-protein roughages 

Adapted to be fed. with corn silage, corn stover, timothy, prairie, 
rowen, or millet hays, cottonseed hulls, etc. 

Mixture 1. — Per cent of digestible protein, 18.4 : 

500 pounds corn meal. 

400 pounds dried distillers' grains (corn). 

200 pounds gluten feed. 

300 pounds old process linseed meal. 
Mixture 2. — Per cent of digestible protein, 19.8 : 

100 pounds corn meal. 

100 pounds cottonseed meal. 

100 pounds old process linseed meal. 

200 pounds wheat bran. 



Dairy Cattle 367 

Mixture 3. — Per cent of digestible protein, 19.1 : 

200 pounds of barley. 

200 pounds cottonseed meal. 

100 pounds alfalfa meal. 

100 pounds wheat bran. 
Mixture 4. — Per cent of digestible protein, 18.1 : 

200 pounds corn meal. 

100 pounds cottonseed meal. 

100 pounds ground oats. 

100 pounds old process linseed meal. 

WITH HIGH-PROTEIN ROUGHAGES 

Adapted to be fed with clover, alfalfa, soybeans, cowpea, vetch, or 
other legume hay. 

Mixture 5. — Per cent of digestible protein, 14.1 : 

400 pounds corn meal. 

100 pounds cottonseed meal. 

100 pounds gluten feed. 

100 pounds wheat bran. 
Mixture 6. — - Per cent of digestible protein, 14.9 : 

200 pounds corn meal. 

200 pounds gluten feed. 

100 pounds malt sprouts. 

100 pounds wheat bran. 
Mixture 7. — Per cent of digestible protein, 13.7 : 

100 pounds of barley. 

200 pounds cocoanut meal. 

100 pounds ground oats. 

100 pounds wheat bran. 
Mixture 8. — Per cent of digestible protein, 15.8 : 

300 pounds corn-and-cob meal. 

200 pounds gluten feed. 

100 pounds cottonseed meal. 

100 pounds wheat bran. 

WITH COMBINATION OF HIGH- AND LOW-PROTEIN ROUGHAGES 

Adapted to be fed with silage and clover or other legume hay ; corn 
stover and clover or other legume hay ; mixed hay, or oat and pea hay 
and the like. 

Mixture 9. — Per cent of digestible protein, 16.3 : 
400 pounds corn meal. 
300 pounds dried distillers' grains (corn). 
100 pounds gluten feed. 
100 pounds old process linseed meal. 



368 Effective Farming 

Mixture 10. — Per cent of digestible protein, 16.1 : 

300 pounds corn meal. 

100 pounds cottonseed meal. 

100 pounds old process linseed meal. 

200 pounds wheat bran. 
Mixture 11. — Per cent of digestible protein, 16.7 : 

200 pounds corn meal. 

100 pounds peanut meal (with hulls). 

100 pounds cottonseed meal. 

100 pounds wheat bran. 
Mixture 12. — Per cent of digestible protein, 16.4 : 

100 pounds corn meal. 

100 pounds ground oats. 

100 pounds cottonseed meal. 

100 pounds wheat bran. 

The mixtures which contain linseed meal are particularly adapted 
for use when no succulence is in the ration. 

Quantities of grains and roughages to feed. — The grain ra- 
tion should be fed in proportion to the quantity of fat or milk 
produced by the cow. A good rule to follow is to feed one 
pound of grain a day for every pound of butter-fat produced 
during the week. Another method is to feed one pound of 
grain to each three pints, or three pounds, of milk produced 
daily by the cow, except in case of a cow producing forty 
pounds or more of milk, when one pound to each three and one- 
half or four pounds, or pints, of milk is fed. Usually a cow 
should be fed all the roughage she will eat up clean. If, how- 
ever, she starts to become fat, the quantity should be lessened. 

These rules serve only as guides and should be modified ac- 
cording to the capacities of the animals to convert the feed into 
milk. 

189. Water and salt for cows. — The milking cow requires 
much water. About 87 per cent of cow's milk is water. 
The water should be pure ; stale water is distasteful to the 
animal and she will not drink enough for a maximum milk 
production. When cows are stabled and do not have access to 
running water, they should be watered two or three times a day. 

More than most animals, the dairy cow requires abundant 



Dairy Cattle 369 

salt. It is a good plan to place an ounce in the feed each day 
and also to have rock salt in boxes in the yard where she can 
Uck it as wanted. If a cow obtains abundant salt, she will 
drink much water, which, as stated above, is an advantage. 

190. Stables for dairy cows. — ^ If a cow is to produce the 
maximum quantity of milk, she must be kept in clean, com- 
fortable quarters. The essentials of such quarters are that 
they have plenty of light, plenty of fresh air with no drafts, 
be convenient for the attendants, and have a floor that can 
be kept clean. This does not mean that the stables must be 



J 


L 


'^ 


,-4 


1 


'i 






iRi^^i 


H*^""^iTi'im 


rorr^ 


Tnorr 


PRt 


mk 2 



















Fig. 147. — Dairy barn plentifully supplied with windows. 

expensive, because good practicable stables embodying these 
features can and are built at a relatively low cost. 

Light. — It is almost impossible to have too many windows 
in a cow stable. There should be at least four square feet of 
window-space for each animal. Sunlight is an enemy to bac- 
teria, which are responsible for unhealthful, impure milk and 
many diseases of the cattle. In the stable plentifully supplied 
with light, it is easy to see dirt that accumulates and get rid 
of it. In Fig. 147 is shown a modern dairy stable plentifully 
supplied with windows. 

Ventilation. — When the windows can be kept open, the 
stable can be ventilated through them, but in cold climates 
2b 



370 Effective Farming 

when the windows cannot be kept open in the winter, a system 
of intakes and outtakes must be employed to provide fresh 
air. In the stable shown in Fig. 147, the fresh air is taken in 
through openings in the side walls between the windows and 
carried through flues to the ceiling in front of the cattle. The 
foul air passes out through flues that open near the floor and is 
carried to the outside through the ventilators on the roof. 

Convenience of arrangement. — In a dairy stable, convenience 
is of prime importance, for the work can then be efficiently 



Fig. 148. — A modern sanitary dairy barn. Milk from a barn like this is 
very likely to be clean. 

and economically carried on. The feed should be accessible, 
the stalls should be placed in rows so that feeding and other 
operations are conveniently accomplished, and pure, fresh, 
running water should be, if possible, piped to the mangers in 
front of the cattle. 

Floors. — Concrete floors are the best for dairy stables ; 
they are easy to keep clean and are sanitary. The floors of 
the stalls may be of some softer material, like wooden blocks 
or cork brick, but, if plenty of bedding is used under the cattle, 
stall floors of concrete are satisfactory. 



Dairy Cattle 371 

Ties for the cattle. — Stanchions are the best kind of ties for 
cattle ; they are preferable to a rope and halter. Many good 
metal and wooden stanchions are for sale by dealers in stable 
equipment. 

A modern sanitary dairy stable. — An interior view of a mod- 
ern sanitary stable, built by the Government at the Naval 
Academy, is shown in Fig. 148. Notice the concrete floor, 
the cork brick in the stalls, the metal stanchions, the feed 
trough in front of the stalls, and the large number of windows. 
Stables Uke this fulfill all the requirements for the production 
of sanitary milk. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by the term dairy form? 

2. Locate the three wedges of a dairy cow. 

3. Discuss the milk-giving qualities of the four chief breeds of dairy 
cattle. 

4. Which two breeds give the highest percentage of butter-fat? 

5. What is colostrum and what is its function? 

6. How can a calf be taught to drink milk from a pail ? 

7. Why should milk that is fed to calves be warm? 

8. With what grains can pastures for dairy cows be supplemented ? 

9. Why is silage a popular succulent dairy feed? 

10. Why should a dairy barn be well supplied with windows? 

EXERCISES 

1 . Scoring and judging dairy cows. — Using the score-card for dairy 
cattle printed herewith, score and judge several cows. Follow the 
method outlined for scoring and judging horses in a previous chapter. 
Whenever you see a dairy cow notice her good and her bad points. 

It is well to mention here that dairy type alone cannot be depended 
on in selecting or judging cows for production. The only way to have 
an accurate knowledge of the milk-giving quahty of an animal is to keep 
a record of the milk she gives. It is true, however, that dairy type, 
which is the type described on a dairy score-card, generally accom- 
panies a larger milk-giving quality, but this is not always the case as 
shown by the following : 

" That the appearance of a dairy cow cannot be depended on to 
indicate her production of milk is illustrated by a demonstration con- 



372 



Effective Farming 



ducted under the auspices of the Dairy Division of the Department with 
a herd of nine cows at the National Dairy Show held in 1916 at Spring- 
field, Mass. 

"A year's record of milk and butter-fat already had been made for all 
the cows of the herd. During the show, complete records of production 
and feed consumption were kept and in every case the previous records 
were duplicated. Some of the cows were of poor dairy type, yet were 
good producers ; others were of good dairy type, yet were poor pro- 
ducers ; still others of similar appearance had greatly different records. 
Of the last-named class were Nos. 8 and 9. Many experienced stock- 
men selected No. 9 as the better of the two, but the records showed 
that for the last year No. 8 gave 8,445 pounds of milk and 346 of fat 
compared with 4,279 pounds of milk and 198 of fat for No. 9. This 
served as an object lesson that good dairy type is not always associated 
with large production and that poor dairy type does not indicate lack 
of large yield." From Weekly News Letter published by the United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

Score-card for Dairy Cattle^ 

Breed Name 

General appearance. — A dairy cow should weigh not less than 800 
pounds, have large capacity for feed, a dairy temperament, well 
developed milk organs, fine quality and perfect health, and be capable 
of a large production of milk and butter-fat. 



Points 



Indication of capacity for feed, 25 points : 

Face, broad between the eyes and long ; muzzle, 
clean-cut ; mouth, large ; lips, strong ; lower 
jaws, lean and sinewy 

Body, wedge shape as viewed from front, side 
and top ; ribs, long, far apart, and well sprung 
breast, full and wide ; flanks, deep and full 

Back, straight; chine, broad and open; loin 
broad and roomy 

Hips and thurls, wide apart and high . . 
Indication of dairy temperament, 25 points : 

Head, clean-cut and fine in contour ; eyes, prom- 
inent, full, and bright 



10 

5 
5 



o 5 



^From U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 281. 



Dairy Cattle 



373 



Score-card for Dairy Cattle {Continued) 



Points 



Neck, thin, long, neatly joined to head and 

shoulders, and free from throatiness and dewlap 

Brisket, lean and light 

Shoulders, lean, sloping, nicely laid up to body ; 

points, prominent ; withers, sharp .... 
Back, strong, prominent to tail head, and open 

jointed . 

Hips, prominent, sharp, and level with back . , 

Thighs, thin and incurving 

Tail, fine and tapering 

Legs, straight ; shank, fine 

Indication of well developed milk organs, 25 points : 
Rump, long, wide, and level ; pelvis, roomy . 
Thighs, wide apart ; twist, high and open 
Udder, large, pliable, extending well forward and 

high up behind ; quarters, full, symmetrical, 

evenly joined, and well held up to body . . 
Teats, plumb, good size, symmetrical, and well 

placed 

Indications of strong circulatory system, health, 

vigor, and milk flow, 25 points : 

Eyes, bright and placid 

Nostrils, large and open 

Chest, roomy 

Skin, pliable ; hair, fine and straight ; secretions, 

abundant in ear, on body, and at end of tail . 
Veins, prominent on face and udder; mammary 

veins, large, long, crooked, and branching ; 

milk wells, large and numerous 

Escutcheon, wide and extending high up , . . 
Total 



15 
4 



100 



o 5 



Remarks 

Name of scorer Date 



REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 50-51, 
The Macmillan Co. 
Dairy Cattle and Milk Production. 



303-317, 
Eckles, C. H 



The Macmillan Co. 



374 Effective Farming 

Eckles, C. H., and Warren, G. F., Dairy Farming. The Macmillan Co. 

Lane, C. B., Business of Dairying. Orange Judd Co. 

Larson, C. W., and Putney, F. S., Dairy Cattle Feeding and Manage- 
ment. Wiley and Sons. 

Farmers' Bulletin 106, Breeds of Dairy Cattle. 

Farmers' Bulletin 206, Milk Fever. 

Farmers' Bulletin 473, Tuberculosis. 

Farmers' Bulletin 578, Handling and Feeding Silage. 

Farmers' Bulletin 743, The Feeding of Dairy Cows. 

Farmers' Bulletin 777, Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves. 

United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 49, Cost of Raising 
a Dairy Cow. 

Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 103 (United States Department 
of Agriculture), Records of Dairy Cows in the United States. 

Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 131, Designs for Dairy Buildings. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

DAIRYING 

Composition of milk. 
Testing of milk for fat. 
Separation of cream from milk. 
Bacteria in milk. 
Production of sanitary milk. 

Keeping foreign matter out of the milk. 

Kind of utensils for milk. 

Care during the milking. 

Care of milk in the milk house. 
Pasteurization of milk. 

The dairy industry is one of the most important divisions 
of agriculture. One has but to visit a milk-receiving station 
in any of the large cities and see train after train of milk com- 
ing to the market to realize something of the magnitude of 
dairying as now conducted. When we consider the vast quan- 
tities of butter, cheese, ice cream, and condensed milk that 
are consumed, we comprehend still more the extent of the 
industry. It is all the more unfortunate, therefore, that much 
of the milk is produced under unsanitary conditions, and it is 
this aspect of the subject that is stressed in the ensuing chapter. 

191. Composition of milk. — The average composition of 
milk as determined by more than five thousand analyses made 
by the New York State Experiment Station at Geneva, is as 
follows : 

Water 87.1 per cent 

Butter-fat 3.9 per cent 

Protein I ^ff^^. 2.5 per cent 

[ Albumm .7 per cent 

Milk-sugar 5.1 per cent 

Ash .]_ per cent 

Total 100.0 per cent 

375 



376 



Effective Farming 




Fig. 149. — A four-bottle hand power tester. 



Milk from different cows varies considerably from this aver- 
age, however, the greatest difference being in the percentage 
of butter-fat, some cows giving milk low in fat and others high 

in fat. The parts of 
milk other than water 
are known as milk 
solids, or as total 
solids, and the solids 
other than butter- 
fat, as solids not fat. 
The milk minus the 
fat is known as the 
milk-serum, or as the 
milk-plasma. As 
shown by its composition, milk contains all the five food 
groups and is a balanced food product. 

The fat of milk rises as cream. It is an emulsion of globules 
so small that a single drop contains more than a hundred 
million. Even from the same cow the 
globules are not all of the same size ; 
some may be two or three times as large 
as others. The average size depends 
largely on the breed of cow. 

The protein is chiefly of two kinds, casein 
and albumin. Casein is the chief constitu- 
ent of cheese. Albumin of milk is some- 
what like the white of egg. When whey is 
heated to 160° F., the albumin coagulates. Fig. 150. — a type of 
_ Milk-sugar, the carbohydrate of milk, ^^eSnt f^^taT 
is less sweet than cane-sugar. It is used ing the water used in 
extensively for the modification of cow's *^^ *^^*- 
milk for infants and is the most readily digested of all sugars. 
The ash, or mineral matter of milk, consists chiefly of the 
chlorides and phosphates of sodium, potassium, magnesium, 
and calcium. 




Dairying 



377 



192. Testing of milk for fat. — It is important that the 
dairyman know the percentage of fat contained in the milk, 
for milk is often rated in value according to its fat-content. 
To measure the fat, use is made of a centrifuge known as a 
Babcock tester, which method was originated in 1890 by S. 
M. Babcock, Chief Chemist of the Wisconsin Experiment 
Station. The Babcock milk tester is used 
also to determine the percentage of fat in 
cream, skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey. 
An outfit for making the test consists 



<s> 



:Sr~, 



s 



Fig. 151. — Type of 
Babcock test bottle 
conforming to the 
requirements of the 
United States Bu- 
reau of Standards, 
and showing grad- 
uations. 






0^ 

Fig. 152. — Types of cream bottles conforming 
to the requirements of the United States Bureau 
of Standards. 



essentially of a centrifuge, a pipette, an acid measure, whoie- 
milk bottles, cream-bottles, skim-milk bottles, cream scales, and 
dividers. A centrifuge is a horizontal wheel fitted with swinging 
cylindrical cups. A drawing of a small hand power four-bottle 
tester is shown in Fig. 149, a. The wheel is rotated by means 
of a gear that is turned in hand power machines by power ap- 
plied at the handle. When the wheel is rotated the cups as- 



378 



Effective Farming 



sume a horizontal position with the openings pointing toward 
the center of the wheel, as shown in Fig. 149, h. A steam-power 
tester is shown in Fig. 150. 

The neck of a whole-milk bottle is graduated to read to 
.1 per cent (Fig. 151), that of a cream bottle 
to .5 per cent (Fig. 152), and that of a skim- 
milk bottle to .01 per cent. The skim-milk 
bottles are provided with a double neck, a 
large one through which the milk is poured 
into the bottle and a small one that is gradu- 
ated for the reading of the percentages of fat. 

The pipette (Fig. 153) is used for measuring 

the milk to be tested. It holds 17.6 cubic 

centimeters (abbreviation c.c.) to a line etched 

on the glass in the neck. The quantity of 

milk required for a test is 17.5 c.c, but as 

about 1 c.c. will adhere to the sides, the pipette 

is made 1 c.c. over measure. The weight of 

milk required is 18 grams ; 17.5 c.c. of normal 

milk is equivalent to 18 grams. The acid 

Fig. 153.— Pipette measure (Figs. 154 and 155) holds 17.5 c.c. 

Mc'^lTntimeteTs" ^^ sulfuric acid, the quantity 

used in measur- required for the test. In fac- 

B^bwck ti'it ^^'^ tories where many samples are 

tested, large acid bottles or 

burettes (Figs. 156 and 157), fitted with pinch 

cocks and arranged to measure a number of 

charges of 17.5 cc. of acid are used; they are 

more convenient than the individual measures. 

In testing cream, scales are used to weigh Fig. 154. — Simple 
the quantity (18 grams) required (Fig. 158). ^^^^ graduate. 
Commercial sulfuric acid having a specific gravity of 1.82 to 
1.83 is used in making the tests. If an acid with a specific 
gravity less than 1.82 is employed the milk particles are not 
properly burned and particles of curd are likely to appear in 



Dairying 



379 



the fat. An acid that has over 1.83 specific gravity has a 
tendency to char the fat and should not be used. The acid 
must be kept in glass 
bottles that are fittcci 




Fig. 155. — A dipper made entirely of glass and 
holding 17.5 cubic centimeters for measuring 
the acid. 



with glass stoppers. 
In making a test, 

these directions should 

be followed: Mix 

thoroughly the sample 

to be tested, place the pipette in the milk, and suck milk into 

the tube until it is above the level of the etched line on the 
neck. Place the forefinger over the end of the 
pipette and the milk will remain in the tube. Re- 
move the pressure of the finger slightly and allow 
the milk to run out of the end of the pipette until 
it is on a level with the etched line, thus leaving 
17.6 c.c. of milk in the pipette. Place the end of 
the pipette in the neck of the test bottle and allow 
the milk to flow into the bottle. Fig. 159 shows 
the correct way to hold the bottle and the pipette. 
If they are both held in a vertical 
position the milk is almost sure to 
spill (Fig. 160). Next, fill the acid 
measure with acid (17.5 c.c.) and 
Aa/| pour it into the test bottle. Slant 
Tiu the bottle as before. If the acid has 
been poured into the milk carefully, 
the two liquids will be in two layers 
Mix the acid and 
uring the milk by gently rotating the bottle. 

Continue this rotating until all pieces Fig. 157.— Acom- 

of curd that form in the mixture are dissolved. ^^??^ ^°**^^ ^"^^ 

• n ,, . 1 r. . , acid measure. 

Allow the mixture to stand a few minutes, then 

rotate the bottle again for a short time. Place the bottles in 

the tester in an upright position. The tester should be full of 



Fig. 156. 

iT^lll in the bottle. 




380 



Effective Farming 




Fig. 158. — Type of knife- 
edge cream balance. 



bottles. If there are not enough samples, fill the unused cups 
with test bottles of water. Turn the handle of the tester for four 

minutes at the speed indicated for 
the machine in use. Add moderately 
hot water to the bottle to bring the 
fat up to the neck of the bottle. A 
pipette is convenient for this. Clean, 
soft water should be used. If the 
water available contains much lime, 
add to it a few drops of sulfuric acid 
to neutralize the lime . After the water 
is added, put the bottles back in the 
machine and whirl them again for one minute. Add hot water 
as before until the fat stands at about the 7 per cent mark in 

the neck of the bottle. Place 

the bottles in the machine 

again, whirl for one minute, and 

read the percentage of fat, as 

shown in Fig. 161. The tem- 
perature of the sample when 

read should be about 140° F. 

To calculate the reading, sub- 
tract the reading at a (Fig. 161) 

from that at 6. A convenient 

way to determine the reading 

is to place the points of a pair 

of dividers at the top and the 

bottom of the fat-column (see 

Fig. 162) ; then, being careful 

to keep this same distance be- 
tween the points, slide them 

down until the lower one is at 

the zero mark, as shown by 
the dotted lines. The upper one will give the reading direct. 
The methods of testing cream, skim-milk, buttermilk, and 





H\ 



Fig. 159. — The 
right way of 
adding milk to 
the test bottle. 
(Farrington 
and Wall, Test- 
ing Milk and 
Its Products.) 



Fig. 160. — The 
wrong way of 
adding the milk 
to the test bot- 
tle. (Farring- 
ton and Wall, 
Testing Milk 
and Its Prod- 
ucts.) 



Dairying 



381 



whey differ in a few details from that of testing 
whole milk. When testing cream, the sample 
is weighed, 18 grams being the quantity used. 
About 17.5 c.c. of acid is added to each sample, 
but the quantity is varied slightly with the rich- 
ness of the cream, rich cream requiring slightly 
less acid than thinner cream. Experience will 
aid in determining the exact quantity to be used. 
Be careful when rotating the bottles after adding 
the acid ; the fat will burn if the rotating is too 
vigorous. After the acid is added let the sample 
stand four minutes before placing it in the 
tester. The other operations are the same as 
for whole milk. In reading the percentage of 
fat, read as shown in Fig. 163. When testing 



6.. 

C-- 



a.. 




Fig. 161.— 
Method of read- 
ing fat column 
in milk testing. 
Read from a to 
h, not from a 
to c, nor a to d. 



Fig. 162. — Dividers for measuring length 
of fat column. 



skim-milk, 
buttermilk, 
or whey, use 
20 c.c. of acid. Place each 
bottle in the tester with the 
filling tube toward the cen- 
ter. This is to prevent any 
fat from being caught be- 
tween the tube and the 
sides of the bottles after 
the whirling in the tester. 
Turn the tester a little faster 
than for whole milk. If 
there is a layer of curd at 
the bottom of the fat column 
do not include it in the read- 
ing. Read the fat column 
as for whole milk. A pair 
of dividers is especially use- 
ful for these readings. 



382 



Effective Farming 



193. Separation of cream from milk. — The best way to 
separate cream from whole milk is to use a centrifugal cream 
separator. The saving of butter-fat by the use of one of these 
machines soon pays for its cost and upkeep. By adjustment of 
the screw on the separator, cream of any desired richness, up 
to a certain limit, can be produced. The milk passes into a 



f^-V^ 



4- 



Fig. 163.— 
Method of read- 
ing fat column 
in cream test- 



ing Read from g • ^ 
a to c, not a 



bowl on the machine and the bowl is revolved 
at a high rate of speed. By reason of centrifugal 
force, the heavier part of the milk — the skim- 
milk — is thrown toward the outside and the 
lighter part — the fat with some milk — is 
crowded toward the center of the bowl. Near 
the side of the bowl at the top is an opening 
through which the skim-milk passes and near 
the center of the bowl, one through which the 
cream passes. The skim-milk and the cream 
are carried from the separator through spouts 
and into pails or cans placed near the machine. 
194. Bacteria in milk. — Most of the fermenta- 
tions that occur in milk are* due to bacteria. 
Not all bacteria are harmful, in fact many are 
useful, but milk containing large numbers should 
be looked on with suspicion, as many undesirable 
bacteria are likely to be present with the bene- 
Bacteria reproduce very rapidly 



to 6, nor from a at high temperatures and more slowly at low 
*°^" temperatures. At 70° F., the growth is rapid, 

at 50° F., it is retarded, and at 40° F., it is very slow. Thus in 
milk not properly cooled, the bacteria multiply very rapidly. 
This is shown graphically in Fig. 164. One of the most 
numerous kinds of bacteria in milk causes lactic acid to form. 
The bacteria break down the milk-sugar and produce lactic 
acid or, in other words, cause the milk to become sour. There 
are several types of lactic-acid bacteria ; those that grow under 
70° F. are useful, especially in the manufacture of butter and 



Dairying 383 

cheese. The rich flavor of these products is due largely to 
these bacteria. If milk sours at a high temperature, an unde- 
sirable type is likely to grow. These produce gas as well as 
lactic acid and are responsible for so-called gassy curd when 
the milk is made into cheese. Those of another type destroy 
the casein and albumin of the milk and cause putrefaction and 
bad odors. This type is, of course, undesirable. 

Disease germs are often carried in the milk, especially 
those causing typhoid fever, tuberculosis, diphtheria, and 
scarlet fever. Milk may be- 
come contaminated by bac- 
teria from the udder itself, 
but this contamination is 
usually harmless unless the 
udder is affected with tuber 
culosis, garget, or some form ^ 
of inflammation. The great- 
est number of bacteria in 

milk come from the dust of Fig. 164. — This diagram shows the 

the air, the dirt and manure rapidity with which bacteria multiply 

,1 , , 1 ri 1 « in milk not properly cooled. A single 

on the udder and flanks of bacterium (a) in 24 hours multiplied 

the cow, from the clothes of to 5 (6) in milk kept at 50° F. ; ic) repre- 

, , .,, , „ , sents the number that developed from a 

the milker, and from unclean single bacterium kept 24 hours at 70° F. 

utensils. Cleanhness about 

a stable and dairy-house is, therefore, a very important means 

of reducing the number of bacteria in milk. 

195. Production of sanitary milk. — Healthy cows are most 
essential to the production of sanitary milk. Milk from dis- 
eased cows is likely to contain disease-producing bacteria. 
At least once a year the cows should be tested for tuberculosis 
by a competent veterinarian and all animals that show reac- 
tion should be removed from the herd. All cows added to 
the herd should be tuberculin-tested. If at any time the cows 
give sUmy, ropy, watery, or otherwise abnormal milk, it should 
not be used. 




384 



Effective Farming 



Keeping foreign matter out of the milk. — Dust, hair, and 
manure should, by all means, be kept out of the milk. To 
do this certain precautions must be taken. The cows must 
be groomed and the hair clipped from the udders, flanks, and 
tails. They must not be fed, bedded, or groomed immediately 
before milking, as these operations fill the stable with dust and 
bacteria. The stalls must be kept clean and manure and 
soiled bedding removed from the stall frequently. The stable 
must be kept in a sanitary condition. 

Kind of utensils for milk. — All utensils that come in con- 
tact with the milk should be of durable, smooth, non-absorbent 

material. Steriliza- 
tion of these uten- 
sils is important. 
All seams in cans 
or pails should be 
flushed with solder. 
Rusty or battered 
utensils should 
never be used, be- 
cause it is impossible 
to clean impurities 
from the rough sur- 
faces. It is neces- 
sary, when washing 
the vessels, to rinse 
them first in cold or 
lukewarm water to 
remove the milk, 
then in hot water 
that contains an alkali like sal soda, followed by a thorough 
rinsing in clean hot water, after which they should be set 
aside to dry. A brush for washing the utensils is more sani- 
tary than a cloth. 

Care during the milking. — Considerable care is necessary 




165. — Clean white suits and small-top milk 
pails used in a sanitary dairy. 



Dairying 



385 



during the process of milking. Before starting to milk, the 
udder, flanks, and bellies should be carefully wiped with a 
clean damp cloth to remove any loose hairs or dust that might 
fall into the pail. Following this, the milker should put on 
clean overalls (Fig. 165) and wash his hands. Small-topped 
pails should be used, experiments showing that milking in 
such pails safeguards the milk and reduces the number of 
bacteria. A pail like the one 
shown in Fig. 166 may be 
secured by soldering a hood 
on an ordinary pail. 

The milking should be done 
with dry hands. The prac- 
tice of milking with wet hands 
is an undesirable habit, not 
only because of the drops of 
water that fall into the milk, 
but because of the possibility 
of causing chapped teats. 
Before milking each cow^, the 
milker should wash his hands. 

Care of milk in the milk-house. — After each cow's milk is 
drawn it should be carried at once to the milk-house, weighed, 
recorded, sampled for the composite test, if one is to be made, 
strained, and cooled. The milk after being cooled should be 
bottled at once and placed in a cold room, or it should be put 
in cans and placed in a tank of cold water. The dairy-house 
should be so constructed as to fulfill sanitary requirements and 
still be practical and inexpensive. 

196. Pasteurization of milk. — Whenever there is any doubt 
about the purity of raw milk, it should be pasteurized. This 
can be done by heating to a temperature somewhat less than 
boiling (145° F. is proper), retaining this temperature for a time, 
then cooUng it immediately. Heating the milk to 145° F. and 
holding it at this temperature for twenty minutes will usually 
2c 




Fig. 166. — Open and small-top milk 
pails. 



386 Effective Farming 

be sufficient to pasteurize it. Bacteria that cause tuberculosis 
and other harmful bodies are killed by pasteurization. Not all 
of the lactic-acid bacteria are killed, however, and the milk 
will sour, but not so quickly as dirty raw milk. Pasteurized 
milk should be consumed within about twenty-four hours 
after it has been heated, since a long time before it sours it is 
likely to become dangerous as human food. This is because 
in raw milk, certain putrefactive bacteria are kept from grow- 
ing by the acidity of the milk, but in pasteurized milk, since 
it does not sour quickly, these bacteria are likely to become 
active and, if the milk is old, cause it to become impure or 
even dangerous for use. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why should the producer of milk know the percentage of fat 
it contains? 

2. How is milk tested for fat? 

3. State the advantages of the centrifugal cream separator. 

4. What causes milk to ferment? 

5. Why should milk be cooled soon after milking? 

6. State some beneficial effects of bacteria in milk ; some harmful 
ones. 

7. What precautions should be taken to exclude disease-producing 
bacteria from milk? 

8. Describe briefly how sanitary milk can be produced. 

9. Why should flies be kept out of the dairy? 

10. How is milk pasteurized? Why should pasteurized milk be 
used within about twenty-four hours after pasteurization? 

EXERCISES 

1. Separating cream from milk. — Secure a centrifugal separator 
and about five gallons of fresh whole milk. Take the separator apart 
and put it together again, studying its construction. Notice the cream 
screw. When a rich cream is desired the screw is turned toward the 
center of the bowl, when a thin cream is wanted it is turned in the oppo- 
site direction, kead carefully the directions furnished by the manu- 
facturer about operating the cream screw. Warm the milk until it is 
about 85° F. and run it through the separator. Milk separates best 



Dairying 387 

at about this temperature. Take samples of the cream and the skim- 
milk and save them for testing. Mix the milk and cream that have 
been separated, heat to 85° F., change the adjustment of the cream 
screw, and run the milk through the machine again. Take samples as 
before for testing. Change the adjustment of the cream screw, mix 
the milk and cream, and separate again. Under favorable conditions 
a separator should not leave more than .1 per cent of cream in the 
skim-milk and .05 per cent is what operators should try to secure. 

2. Testing for butter-fat. — Test for butter-fat the samples of milk 
and cream secured in the previous exercise. Follow carefully the 
directions as given in the chapter. If there is not a Babcock testing 
outfit among the school equipment, it will usually be possible to borrow 
one from some one in the neighborhood. If this cannot be done, a 
creamery or skimming station should be visited at a time when the 
cream is being tested and the process observed closely. Small testing 
outfits can be purchased cheaply from creamery supply houses, dealers 
in agricultural laboratory supplies, and catalog houses. 

3. Impurities in milk. — To test the quantity of impurities in milk, 
secure several quarts from different sources, a roll of absorbent cotton, 
a small piece of wire screen, several empty quart bottles, a dairy ther- 
mometer, and a sauce pan. Place the wire screen over the mouth of 
one of the empty quart milk bottles, spread a layer of absorbent cotton 
over the screen, heat one of the quarts of milk to a temperature of 
about 100° F. and pour it through the absorbent cotton into the bottle. 
Remove the cotton and mark it to designate the source of milk that 
was poured through it. Follow same instructions with other quarts of 
milk. Examine the pieces of cotton. Unclean milk will leave a stain 
on the cotton, and the dirtier the milk, the darker will be the stain. 
Add varying quantities of dust to the different lots of milk, repeat 
the experiment, and observe the results. Many creameries and cheese 
factories make sediment tests of the milk of their patrons. If such tests 
are made at local factories, ask to see the disks from different patrons. 

4. Cleanliness of dairy utensils. — The equipment required for this 
exercise is two pint jars with covers, a quart of fresh milk, a tooth pick, 
and a dairy utensil that has unflushed seams. Fill the pint jars with 
milk, scrape material from the seams of the utensil with the tooth pick, 
and put this dirt in one of the jars, but not in the other. If no utensil 
with unflushed seams is available, place some milk in a tin can or cup 
that has unflushed seams, allow the milk to sour, pour it out, then 
scrape the seams. Place the covers loosely over both jars and set them 
away about five or six hours where the temperature is anywhere from 
70 to 90° F. At the end of the time notice carefully the odor and 



388 Effective Farming 

taste of the milk in the two jars. Examine the milk pails and cans at 
local hardware stores. Are they made with flushed seams? 

5. Absorption of odors by milk. — For this exercise you will require 
a banana, three quarts of milk, two shallow pans, two empty quart 
milk bottles, a tight box in which the pan can be placed, and a cover for 
the box. The first part of the exercise is conducted in the school labor- 
atory. A banana is used as the source of the odor. Pour a quart of 
milk into one of the pans and place the pan in the box. Remove the 
skin from the banana and lay the fruit in the box near the pan of milk. 
Place the cover on the box and keep it closed for twenty-four hours. 
At the end of the time open the box and examine the milk for odor. 

The second part of the exercise is conducted on some dairy farm in 
the neighborhood. Visit the farm during milking time and as soon as 
a cow has been milked pour a quart of milk in the shallow pan and fill 
the quart bottles with milk from the same source. Leave. the pan un- 
covered in a stable for several hours. Remove the quart bottle from 
the stable at once, aerate the milk by pouring it several times from 
one bottle to another, place a cap on the bottle, and set it away in a cold 
place for ten to twelve hours. At the end of the time have the two 
lots of milk brought to the school-house and examine them for odor. 
The way to avoid the odor of the stable in milk is to keep the stable 
clean and to remove the milk to another building soon after the milking 
of the cows. Where would you be most likely to get a cowy odor in 
milk, in a clean, well ventilated stable, or in a dirty, poorly ventilated 
stable ? Why should milk be aerated ? 

6. Scoring dairy farms. — The score-card given herewith is the one 
published by the Dairy Division of the United States Department of 
Agriculture. Using this score-card visit several dairy farms and score 
the dairies. Those that score above 80 per cent are producing high 
grade milk, those from 70 to 80 per cent are producing reasonably clean 
milk, and those that are 50 per cent or below are producing dirty milk. 
On your inspection trip you will undoubtedly find dirty dairies as well 
as clean ones. 



Dairying 
Score-card for Dairy Farm 



389 





Score 


Methods 


Score 


Equipment 


Per- 


Al- 


Per- 


Al- 




fect 


lowed 




fect 


lowed 


cows 






cows 






Health 


6 




Clean 


8 




Apparently in good health 1 






(Free from visible dirt, 6.) 






If tested with tuberculin 












within a year and no 






STABLES 






tuberculosis is found, 










or if tested within six 






Cleanliness of stables . . 


6 





months and all reacting 






Floor 2 






animals removed . . 5 






Walls 1 






(If tested within a year 






Ceiling and ledges . . 1 






and reacting animals are 






Mangers and partitions . 1 






found and removed, 3.) 






Windows 1 






Food (clean and wholesome) 


1 




Stable air at milking time . 


5 





Water (clean and fresh) 


1 




Freedom from dust . . 3 
Freedom fiom odors . , 2 






STABLES 






Cleanliness of bedding . . 
Barnyard 


1 
2 




Location of stable . . . 


2 




Clean 1 






Well drained .... 1 






Well drained .... 1 






Free from contaminating 






Removal of manure daily to 






surroundings ... 1 






50 feet from stable . . 


2 




Construction of stable . 


4 






















proper gutter ... 2 






MILK ROOM OR MILK HOUSE 






Sm^ooth, tight walls and 






Cleanliness of milk room , 


3 




ceiling 1 












Proper stall, tie, and man- 
ger 1 

Provision for light : Four 






UTENSILS AND MILKING 










Care and cleanliness of uten- 






aq. ft. of glass per cow 
(Three sq. ft., 3 ; 2 sq. 


4 




sils 
Thoroughly washed ... 2 


8 




ft., 2; lsq.ft.,1. Deduct 






Sterilized in steam for 15 






for uneven distribution.) 






minutes 3 






Beddin<^ 


1 




(Placed over steam 








7 




jet, or scalded with 






Provision for fresh air. 






boiling water, 2.) 






controllable flue system 3 






Protected from contami- 






(Windows hinged at 






nation 3 






bottom, 1.5; sliding 






Cleanliness of milking . . 


9 










Clean, dry hands ... 3 






openings, 0.5.) 






Udders washed and wiped 6 






Cubic feet of space per 






(Udders cleaned with 






cow, 500 ft 3 






moist cloth, 4 ; cleaned 






(Less than 500 ft.. 2; 






with dry cloth or brush 






less than 400 ft., 1 ; 






at least 15 minutes be- 






less than 300 ft., 0.) 






fore milking, 1.) 






Provision for controlling 












temperature .... 1 






HANDLING THE MILK 

Cleanliness of attendants in 






UTENSILS 






milk room 


2 





Construction and condition 






Milk removed immediately 






of utensils 


1 




from stable without pour- 






Water for cleaning . . . 


1 




ing from pail .... 


2 





(Clean, convenient, and 






Cooled immediately after 






abundant.) 






milking each cow . . . 


2 




Small-top milking pail . . 


5 




Cooled below 50° F. . . . 


5 




Milk cooler 


1 




(51° to 55°, 4 ; 56° to 60°, 2.) 






Clean milking suits . . . 


1 




Stored below 50° F. . . 


3 





390 



Effective Farming 



Score-card for Dairy Farm (Continued) 





Score 


Methods 


Score 


Equipment 


Per- 
fect 


Al- 
lowed 


Per- 
fect 


Al- 
lowed 


MILK ROOM OR MILK HOUSE 

Location : Free from con- 
taminating surroundings 

Construction of milk room 
Floor, walls, and ceiling . 1 
Light, ventilation, screens 1 

Separate rooms for washing 
utensils and handling 
milk ...... 

Facilities for steam . . . 
(Hot water, 0.5.) 


1 

1 
1 




HANDLING THE MILK Cout. 

(51° to 55°, 2; 56° to 60°, 1.) 
Transportation below 50° F. 
(51° to 55°, 1.5; 56° to 60°, 1.) 
(If delivered twice a 
day, allow perfect score for 
storage and transporta- 
tion.) 






Total 


40 





Total 

1 


60 





Final Score. 

particularly dirty utensils, 



Equipment 4- Methods = 

Note 1, — -If any exceptionally filthy condition is found, 
the total score may be further limited. 

Note 2. — If the water is exposed to dangerous contamination, or there is evidence 
of the presenf'e of a dangerous disease in animals or attendants, the score shall be 0. 



REFERENCES 

Eckles, C. H., Dainj Cattle and Milk Production. The Macmillan Co. 
Eekles, C. H., and Warren G. F., Dairy Farming. The Macmillan Co. 
Wing, H. H., Milk and its Products. The Macmillan Co. 
Stocking, W. A., Manual of Milk Products. The Macmillan Co. 
McKay, G. L., and Larson, Christian, Principles and Practices of 

Butter- Making. Wiley and Sons. 
Michels, John, Dairy Farming. Published by the author. Clemson 

College, S.C. 
Farmers' Bulletin 602, Production of Clean Milk. 
Farmers' Bulletin 490, Bacteria in Milk. 

Farmers' Bulletin 413, Care of Milk and its Use in the Home. 
Farmers' Bulletin 227, Clean Milk. 
Farmers' Bulletin 748, A Simple Steam Sterilizer for Farm Dairy 

Utensils. 
Farmers' Bulletin 541, Farm Butter Making. 
Farmers' Bulletin 689, Plan for a Small Dairy House. 



CHAPTER XIX 

SHEEP 

Classes of sheep. 
Middle-wool breeds. 

Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire, Oxford, Dorset, Cheviot. 
Long-wool breeds. 

Leicester, Cotswold, Lincoln. 
Fine-wool breeds. 

American Merino, Rambouillet. 
Feeds for sheep. 
Importance of shepherd dogs. 
Sheep-killing dogs. 
Catching, holding, and leading sheep. 

When rightly managed sheep give good returns on the in- 
vestment, they furnish a valuable food product, and wool 
that can be manufactured into the warmest of cloth. With 
all these good qualities, however, not many sheep, compared 
with the other classes of live-stock, are found on American 
farms. Sheep are abundant in the western country, but on 
the farms of the Central States, the East, and the South many 
more might be raised, although the profit-and-loss elements 
of the industry must determine the extent to which it can be 
carried. The cur-dog nuisance is partly responsible for lack 
of sheep, but another reason is that farmers as a whole know 
little about sheep raising. Many of them think the manage- 
ment of a flock a difficult task, but experience shows that this 
is not true. Sheep are really not more difficult to manage 
than other classes of live-stock. However, merely because 
sheep thrive in a given region does not prove that they 
should be raised there; other kinds of farming may be more 
profitable. 

391 



392 



Effective Farming 



197. Classes of sheep. — Of the thirty breeds of improved 
sheep, eleven are fairly well established in the United States. 
These may be grouped into three classes known as middle-wool, 
long-wool, and fine-wool classes. The points of a sheep from 
the side, front, and rear views are shown in Figs. 167 and 168. 




Fig, 167. — Points of the sheep, side view. 1, muzzle; 2, mouth; 3, nostril; 
4, lips; 6, nose; 8, eye; 9, ear; 10, neck; 11, neck vien, or shoulder; 
12, top of shoulder; 13, shoulder; 14, arm; 15, shanks; 16, brisket, or 
breast ; 17, top hne ; 18, crops ; 19, ribs ; 21, fore flank ; 22, back ; 23, loin ; 
24, hind flank ; 25, underhne ; 26, hip ; 27, rump ; 30, thigh, or leg of mutton. 

198. Middle-wool breeds. — The breeds of the middle-wool 
class are Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire, Oxford, Dorset, 
and Cheviot. The first four are known as the down breeds, 
a name applied by reason of the hilly, or as it is termed, downs 
country of England where they originated. The down breeds 
and the other two of this class are bred primarily for mutton 
and secondarily for wool-production. The wool, although it 
is of medium length, brings considerable return to the owners 
of the flocks and is an important item. 

Southdown. — The oldest of the middle-wool breeds is the 
Southdown. The animals are very uniform in appearance, as 
may be seen in Fig. 169. They are extremely blocky, low-set, 



Sheep 



393 



compact with good width of back, thickness of loin, and pkimp- 
ness of thighs. In mutton form they excel all the other breeds. 
The head is short and broad, wide between the eyes, the ears 
are short, small, and pointed and are covered on the outside 
with tufts of wool. The face below the eyes is covered with 
brownish-gray hair, and the cheeks and forehead with wooL 
The legs, like the face, are covered with hair. The animals 
are the smallest of the mutton breeds, rams weighing about 
one hundred seventy-five pounds and ewes about one hundred 







Fig. 168. — Points of the sheep, front and rear views. 6, face; 7, forehead; 
16, brisket, or breast ; 20, girth, or heart girth ; 28, pin bones ; 29, dock, or 
tail; 31, twist. 

thirty-five pounds. As a breed they are active and adapted 
to hilly pastures. The fleece is very dense and short. 

Shropshire. — The most widely known breed of sheep in 
America is the Shropshire (Fig. 170). The animals are low- 
set, broad, deep, and well fleshed, but they do not have as 
good mutton form as the Southdowns. The head is wooled 
over, except the nose, which is covered with brown hair. The 
ears are slightly pointed and are covered on the outside with 
tufts of fine wool. The legs, where not wooled, are covered 
with hair the same color as that on the nose. In size the 



394 



Effective Farming 




Sheep 



395 




Fig. 170. — Shropshire ram. 



animals are intermediate between the Southdown and the Ox- 
ford. The rams usually weigh about two hundred twenty-five 
pounds and the ewes 
from one hundred fifty 
to one hundred sixty 
pounds. In weight and 
length of fleece the 
Shropshire ranks among 
the best of the middle- 
wool breeds and the 
wool is evenly distrib- 
uted over the body, 
often extending down 
to the hoofs. 

Hampshire. — The 
breed noted especially 
for the rapid and early growth of the lambs is the Hampshire 
(Fig. 171). The animals are of the general mutton form, but 
are tall, big-boned, rugged, and inclined to be somewhat coarse in 

appearance. The head 
is large, is wooled only 
on the forehead and 
cheeks; the remaining 
parts are covered with 
black hair. The nose 
is Roman, which is a 
distinguishing feature. 
The ears are large, car- 
ried straight out from 
the head, and covered 
with black hair the 
same as on the face. 




Fig. 171. — Hampshire ewe. 



The animals are large ; rams weigh about two hundred fifty 
pounds and ewes from one hundred eighty-five to one hundred 
ninety-five pounds. The fleece is not so good as in most of the 



396 



Effective Farming 



middle-wool breeds ; it is usually short, rather thin, and not 
well distributed over the body. 

Oxford. — Formed by crossing Hampshires and Cotswolds, 
a long-wool sheep, the Oxford has become one of the important 
breeds. The animals are the largest of the middle-wool breeds, 
rams weighing from two hundred fifty to three hundred fifty 
pounds and ewes from one hundred eighty to two hundred 
seventy-five pounds. These sheep are especially well de- 
veloped in back, loin, and hindquarters. In appearance of 
head they somewhat resemble the Shropshire, although the 
head is longer and is wooled only down to the eyes. The 
remainder of the face is covered with light-brown hair. The 
ears are longer than those of the Shropshire and are covered 
with hair. The legs are covered with hair, also. The fleece is 

long and coarse, aver- 
aging about 10 per cent 
heavier than that of the 
Shropshire. It is usu- 
ally somewhat open, 
but is close enough for 
the protection of the 
animals. 

Dorset. — A distin- 
guishing feature of the 
Dorset breed (Fig. 172) 
is that both ewes and 






Fig. 1' 



Dorset ewes. 



rams have horns. The 
form of the animal is 
similar to that of the Shropshire, but is somewhat less sym- 
metrical. The ears, legs, and face, except a foretop of wool, 
are covered with fine white hair. The skin of the nose is 
usually pink. In size the animals are medium, the rams 
weighing about two hundred pounds and the ewes one hun- 
dred sixty pounds. The fleece is medium in coarseness and 
length; it often lacks density and is not evenly distributed. 



Sheep 



397 



the under side of the body frequently being short-wooled, or 
bare. Strong features of the Dorset are the breeding habit, 
the prohficacy, and the milking quality of the ewes. The 
ewes can be bred to lamb in the fall; this makes the breed 
popular with farmers who desire to grow " hot-house lambs," 
that is, lambs that can be marketed from Thanksgiving to 
Easter. The ewes can be bred to lamb twice a year, but this 
practice is not advised. Twin lambs are rather common, 
more so than with other breeds. The milking qualities of the 
ewes is above the average and, largely on this account, the lambs 
grow rapidly and come to marketable age early. 

Cheviot. — ^ Animals of the Cheviot breed (Fig. 173) have 
been raised for centuries in the Cheviot Hills near the border 
of Scotland and Eng- 
land. They are vigor- 
ous, alert, and hardy 
and can often be raised 
on high rugged lands 
that are unsuited to the 
other breeds. The form 
approaches the mutton 
type, but it does not 
equal that of the down 
breeds. The head, face, 
and ears are characteris- 
tic in appearance, the 
head being broad between the eyes, the ears erect, and the 
face and ears covered with fine, white hair. The fleece ends 
just back of the ears and about the throat in a ruff. The 
legs are clean of wool and are covered with hair like that "on 
the face and ears. In size the animals are medium, rams 
weighing about two hundred pounds and ewes about one hun- 
dred fifty pounds. The wool is of excellent quality, rather 
light in weight, and is white in contrast to the gray tinge of 
the down breeds. 




Fig. 173. — Cheviot ram. 



398 



Effective Farming 



199. Long-wool breeds. — The breeds of long-wool sheep 
are Leicester, Cots wold, and Lincoln. The animals are raised 
chiefly for mutton. They are the largest sheep grown and 
are large-framed and square-bodied with broad backs. The 
fleeces are more open, coarser, and longer than those of the 
other classes. On account of their size they are best suited 
for level lands where feed can be obtained without much travel. 
They stand wet weather well, the long wool shedding water 
better than that of the middle-wool breeds. The lambs do 
^ -_^ not mature so rapidly 




d 



Fig. 174. — Leicester ewe. 



nor fatten so young as 
those of middle-wool 
animals. 

Leicester. — The first 
breed of sheep to be im- 
proved by careful selec- 
tion and breeding was 
the Leicester (Fig. 174). 
Robert Bakewell, one of 
the early and foremost 
breeders of live-stock in 
England, used these ani- 
mals in his work. Leicesters have a characteristic appearance 
of head and face ; the head is bare of wool from the ears forward 
and the face is lean and tapers toward the muzzle with a slightly 
Roman nose and is covered with short, white hair with an occa- 
sional black spot. The ears and legs, like the face, are covered 
with hair. The form is square, the back wide and well covered 
with flesh, and the rump prominent. The animals are the 
smallest of the long-wool breeds, the rams weighing from two 
hundred twenty-five to two hundred fifty pounds and the ewes 
from one hundred seventy-five to two hundred pounds. The 
fleece is long, white, and fine, and hangs in locks that are 
smaller than those of the other long- wool breeds. 

Cotswotd. — The native home of these sheep (Fig. 175) is 



Sheep 



399 




the Cotswold Hills of England. The animals are somewhat 
upstanding, but are of good mutton form and possess strong, 
well fleshed backs and loins. The face and ears are covered 
with white or grayish hairs and the head carries a heavy fore- 
lock of wool that falls over the face and eyes, as shown in 
Fig. 175. The animals are among the largest of sheep, ranging 
from two hundred to two . , ^^.< , 

hundred fifty pounds. 
The wool hangs in long 
wavy ringlets all over 
the body, except the 
face, and yields a large 
quantity of fleece. 

Lincoln . — The native 
home of the Lincoln breed 
(Fig. 176) is England, 
where conditions are well 
adapted for the develop- 
ment of large sheep. The 
animals are shorter and 
more compactly built 
than the Cotswold and 
show a massive, square 
mutton frame. The face, 
ears, and legs below the 
knees nnd hocks are cov- 
ered with white hair. On 
the head is a tuft of wool. The animals average in weight 
from two hundred to two hundred fifty pounds and they shear 
a very heavy fleece. 

200. Fine-wool breeds. — The breeds of the fine-wool class 
are American Merino and Rambouillet. All these fine-wool 
sheep L.re descendants from Spanish stock. The animals have 
been bred principally for the production of wool, although in 
the C type of Merino (see the next paragraph) and the Ram- 



Fig. 175. — Cotswold ram. 



400 



Effective Farming 




Fig. 176. — Lincoln ewe. 



bouillet the breeders 
have improved the mut- 
ton quaUties and have 
kept the fine-wool char- 
acteristic. 

American Merino. — 
The American Merinos 
are the smallest of all 
breeds, the rams rang- 
ing from one hundred 
to one hundred seventy- 
five pounds and the 
ewes from eighty to one 
hundred pounds. The 
head is small and covered with wool, except the tip of the nose. 
The males have heavy, incurving, spiral horns ; the females 
are hornless. The fleece is from two to two and one-half 
inches in length and is very dense and fine. The whole body 
is covered with wool and 
the area of the wooled 
surface is increased by 
the presence of wrinkles 
and folds. The Merinos 
are grouped into three 
classes. A, B, and C, 
according to the pres- 
ence or absence of the 
wrinkles and folds. 
Animals of class A (Fig. 
177) have heavy wrin- 
kles and folds ; those of 
class B have few wrinkles about the neck and brisket and 
in some cases on the thighs; those of class C are still less 
wrinkled, often having only a slight suggestion of wrinkles 
about the neck. They are often known as Delaine Merinos 




Fig. 177. — Type A, Merino ram. 



Sheep 



401 



and are somewhat larger than those of the other two classes, 
and have slightly longer and coarser wool and more of the 
mutton form. Some authorities make the Delaine Merinos 
a separate breed. 

Rambouillet. — The animals of the Rambouillet breed (Fig. 
178) are larger than those of the other fine-wool sheep, the 
rams weighing from one hundred seventy-five to one hundred 
eighty pounds and the ewes from one hundred forty to one 
hundred eighty pounds. 
Although the sheep are 
rather upstanding, the 
form approaches that 
of the mutton type and 
the animals produce a 
good quality of mutton 
as well as fine wool. 
The head is larger than 
in the Merinos and is 
wooled well down on 
the nose. The wool is 
about three inches long 
and the fleece com- 
pletely covers the body. 

201. Feeds for sheep. 
— Sheep are capable of 

digesting large quantities of roughage, but they should have 
concentrates in addition. Excellent roughages for sheep are 
the leguminous hays from alfalfa, red clover, alsike clover, or 
cowpeas. Corn stover, straws, and hays from some of the 
grasses are often fed to sheep, but they are inferior to the 
leguminous hays. Timothy or millet hays should not be fed to 
sheep. The former causes constipation and the latter, scours. 

Pasturage is the important feed for sheep. They are natu- 
rally grazing animals and, hke all animals that chew their cud, 
require abundant succulent feed. Permanent pastures of 
2d 




Fig. 178. — Rambouillet ewe. 



402 Effective Farming 

blue-grass, white clover, Bermuda-grass, meadow-fescue, or 
red clover, usually in mixtures, make good sheep pasture. A 
number of annual crops also are used for sheep pasture. Among 
these are rape, oats and peas, vetches, cowpeas, soybeans, 
barley, kale, and wheat. 

Roots are often fed to sheep in winter to supply succulent 
feed. The}^ should be pulped or cut into small pieces. Turnips 
and rutabagas are best ; sugar-beets and mangels are not 
usually satisfactory. Silage is a useful succulent for sheep. 
If it is of good quality, it can be fed with satisfactory results, 
but if sour, moldy, or frozen, it should never be utilized. 
Cabbage is used for sheep, especially show sheep. The animals 
relish it, but for commercial feeding cabbage is too expensive 
and, moreover, does not keep well in storage. Pumpkins, if 
cut into small pieces, can be fed to sheep very satisfactorily. 
They are especially useful in adding variety to the ration. 

Among the concentrates for sheep are corn, barley, oats, 
peas, whole cottonseed, cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls 
mixed, linseed meal, gluten feed, and bran. 

202. Importance of shepherd dogs. — A well trained shep- 
herd dog is a valuable asset to any farmer who raises sheep. 
A dog can be taught to herd the flock and will watch them 
tirelessly and warn the owner of any prowler that may be near. 
Scotch collies are the sheep dogs used in America and for this 
purpose are invaluable. 

203. Sheep-killing dogs. — In contrast to the well trained 
dog is the cur sheep-killing dog. Dogs of this class have pre- 
vented many farmers from raising sheep and have caused others 
to sell their flocks. Thousands of sheep have been killed or 
injured by such dogs, and whenever a flock becomes ravaged, 
the sheep are restless and easily excited and not likely to make 
normal gains in weight for two weeks afterwards ; this loss 
must be added to that of the sheep killed or injured. In some 
cases flocks have become so restless that they had to be sold. 

Among the remedies for the cur-dog nuisance are stringent 



Sheep 403 

dog-laws, dog-proof wire fences, sheep-bells, and the keeping 
of more sheep. Stringent dog-laws rigidly enforced will aid 
much toward the solution of the problem. In England, where 
such laws are in force, skeep-killing by dogs is much less common 
than in America. A yard inclosed by a dog-proof fence into 
which the sheep are driven at night is an effective aid in pro- 
tecting the animals. Sheep-bells serve as a warning where 
the flock is disturbed and thus it is a good plan to have several 
in each flock. The raising of more sheep in any community, 
especially in one in which not many farmers have sheep, will 
aid in solving the cur-dog problem, because the farmers will 
then be more active in promoting dog laws. 

204. Catching, holding, and leading of sheep. — Unless one 
is accustomed to handling sheep, one is likely to have difficulty 
in catching, holding, and leading them. A practical method 
of handling sheep when scoring, judging, or otherwise examining 
them is as follows : Step up quietly behind the sheep and grasp 
its hind leg just above the hock with the right hand. Sheep 
do not struggle much when caught by the leg in this manner. 
Never jump on the back of a sheep and try to hold it by the 
wool, as one is almost sure to frighten the animal and to loosen 
or pull out wool. Sheep to be scored or judged should be held 
by the head. To change position, when holding the sheep by the 
hind leg, step back and a little to the left of the animal, reach 
forward with the left hand and pass it under the neck from the 
left side, release hold of the hind leg, step forward, and place 
the right hand on the top of the neck, slide the left hand under 
the jaw, then pass the right hand over the forehead. With the 
hands in this position one can usually hold the sheep quietly, 
even if it is a rather stubborn animal, and if it is a quiet one, 
it can be held with one hand placed under the jaw. 

A sheep is a stubborn animal to lead. To make it go for- 
ward, assume the position described above, leave one hand 
under the jaw, step back and grasp the root of the tail or the 
dock with the other hand and squeeze it. The sheep will 



404 



Effective Farming 



generally go forward when this is done, but if dragged by the 
head it is almost sure to pull back. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the three classes of sheep and give the general character- 
istics of each. 

2. Which breed of sheep shows the best mutton form ? 

3. Describe and contrast Shropshire and Oxford sheep. 

4. Which breed is used for the production of hot-house lambs ? 

5. Point out the general differences between the Leicester and 
Cotswold breeds. 

6. Which of the breeds of the fine-wool class has been most de- 
veloped as a dual-purpose breed ? 

7. Make a list of good roughages for sheep. 

8. Why is silage a good feed for sheep ? 

9. Contrast the heads of the three long- wool breeds. 

10. What remedies can you suggest for sheep-killing dogs? 

EXERCISES 

1. Scoring and judging sheep. — Making use of the score-card 
given herewith, score and judge sheep as directed for this work with the 
other classes of live-stock. 

Score-card for Fat Mutton Sheep ^ 



Scale of Points 



1. Age 

General appearance — 38 per cent : 

2. Weight, score according to age 

3. Form, long, level, deep, broad, low-set, stylish 

4. Quality, clean bone; silky hair; fine pink 

skin ; light in offal, yielding high percent- 
age of meat 

Condition, deep even covering of firm flesh 
especially in regions of valuable cuts 
Points indicating ripeness are, thick dock 
back thickly covered with fiesh, thick neck 
full purse, full flank, plump breast . . 



5. 



Stand- 
ard 



8 
10 



10 



10 



Points 
Deficient 



Stu- 
dent's 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 



From Purdue University Circular 29. 



Sheep 



405 



Score-card for Fat Mutton Sheep (Continued) 



Scale of Points 



Stand- 
ard 



Points 
Deficient 



Stu- 
dent's 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 



Head and neck — 7 per cent : 

6. Muzzle, fine ; mouth large ; lips thin ; nostrils 

large and open 

7. Eyes, large, clear, placid 

8. Face, short ; features clean-cut 

9. Forehead, broad, full 

10. Ears, fine, alert 

11. Neck, thick, short, free from folds .... 
Forequarters — 7 per cent : 

12. Shoulders, covered with flesh, compact on top, 

snug 

13. Brisket, neat, proportionate ; breast wide . 

14. Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong ; fore- 

arm full ; shank smooth, fine 

Body — 20 per cent : 

15. Chest, wide, deep, full 

16. Ribs, well sprung, long, close 

17. Back, broad, straight, long, thickly fleshed 

18. Loin, thick, broad, long 

Hindquarters — 16 per cent : 

19. Hips, far apart, level, smooth 

20. Rump, long, level, wide to tail-head . . . 

21. Thighs, full, deep, wide 

22. Twist, plump, deep 

23. Legs, straight, short, strong; shank fine, 

smooth . 

Wool — 12 per cent : 

24. Quantity, long, dense, even 

25. Quality, fine, pure ; crimp close, regular, even 

26. Condition, bright, sound, clean, soft, light . 

Total 



100 



2. The cuts of mutton and lamb. — The cuts of mutton and lamb 
should be studied as the beef cuts were in a previous exercise. Refer 
to Illinois Station Bulletin 147. 

3. Handling of sheep. — Practice catching, holding, and leading 
sheep as described in paragraph 204. 



406 Effective Farming 



REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 592- 

633. The Macmillan Co. 
Craig, John, Sheep Farming in America. The Macmillan Co. 
Wing, J, E., Sheep Farming in America. Sanders Publishing Co. 
Farmers' Bulletin 576, Breeds of Sheep for the Farm. 
Farmers' Bulletin 49, Sheep Feeding. 
Farmers' Bulletin 652, The Sheep-killing Dog. 
Farmers' Bulletin 713, Sheep Scab. 

Farmers' Bulletin 798, The Sheep Tick and Its Eradication by Dipping. 
Farmers' Bulletin 810, Equipment for Farm Sheep Raising. 
Farmers' Bulletin 840, Farm Sheep Raising for Beginners. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 20, The Management of Sheep on 

the Farm. 
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 129, Market Classes 

and Grades of Sheep. 



CHAPTER XX 

SWINE 

Lard-type swine. 

Berkshire, Poland-China, Chester White, Duroc-Jersey, Hamp- 
shire. 
Bacon-type swine. 

Large Yorkshire, Tarn worth. 
Regions for hog-raising. 
Feeds for swine. 
Sanitation in the hog lot. 
Hog cholera. 
Mineral matter and tonic for hogs. 

Many farmers in the Central States have become prosper- 
ous raising swine. One farmer in Elinois sells $10,000 worth 
of pm^e-bred swine each year in addition to other products 
from his farm. This is in the corn-belt region ; we have al- 
ready found that maize and cattle and hogs go well together. 
In the South and East, also, swine production on farms is ex- 
tensive. Pork, bacon, lard, and other swine products, are 
staple articles of household use. A great impetus has been 
given to swine production in recent years by the Boys' Pig 
Clubs, which, like the Boys' Corn Clubs, the Girls' Tomato 
Clubs, and the Girls' Canning Clubs, have been fostered by 
the United States Department of Agriculture. For information 
about Pig Clubs, consult Farmers' Bulletin 566 given as a 
reference at the end of this chapter ; also consult your county 
agent. 

205. Lard-type swine. — Two types of swine are grown 
by American farmers. These are known as the lard- or fat- 
hog type, and the bacon-hog type. Lard-type swine produce 
large quantities of fat. They are low-set, wide, deep, and of 

407 



408 



Effective Farming 



medium length, have well developed hams and shoulders, and 
give a fair quantity of bacon. They furnish the market with 
cheap side meat, hams, and shoulders. The animals are best 
suited to conditions where corn is cheaply and abundantly 

/^ 




Fig, 179. — Points of the hog, three-quarters front view. 2, face ; 3, eye ; 
4, ears; 5, jowl; 7, shoulder vein, or neck vein; 8, shoulder; 9, arm; 
11, leg; 14, topline ; 15, crops; 16, back; 17, loin; 18, side; 19, ribs; 
20, belly; 21, fore flank; 22, underline, or bottom line; 23, hind flank; 
24, hip; 25, rump; 26, tail; 28, thigh; 29, buttock; 31, hock. 

produced. The chief breeds are Berkshire, Poland-China, 
Chester White, Duroc-Jersey, and Hampshire. Three of these 
originated in America and two in England. The external parts 
of swine are illustrated in Figs. 179 and 180. 




Fig. 180. — Points of the hog, side view. 1, snout; 5, jowl; 6, neck ; 8, shoulder; 
9, arm; 10, breast, or brisket; 12, pastern; 13, feet; 15, crops: 16, back; 
17, loin ; 18, side ; 19, ribs ; 20, belly ; 21, fore flank ; 23, hind flank ; 24, hip ; 
25, rump ; 27, ham, or gammon ; 29, buttocks ; 30, twist, or crotch ; 31, hock. 



Swine 



409 




Fig. 181. — Berkshire sow. 



Berkshire. — One of the oldest breeds of swine is the Berk- 
shire (Fig. 181). This is an Enghsh breed and the animals are 
widely distributed in America, where they are very popular. 
They are blue-black in color and most of them show six 
white points — one on 
the face, the tip of the 
tail, and the four feet. 
An occasional splash of 
white is found on the 
forelegs. A sohd black 
color or white spots on 
the body are objected 
to by breeders. In size 
the animals are a trifle 
larger than the other 
lard breeds. A mature 
boar, when fat, should weigh five hundred pounds and a mature 
sow, four hundred pounds. The conformation is that of the lard- 
type hog. The face is short and dished and the ears are short, 
pointed, and usually erect. The Berkshire has been largely used 

for crossing with scrub 
stock, as the animals work 
marked improvement in 
the offspring with what- 
ever stock they are 
crossed. In the corn-belt 
states and in the South, 
Berkshires are very pop- 
ular. 

Poland-China. — This 
breed (Fig. 182) origi- 
nated in the Miami Valley in Ohio as a result of crossing native 
hogs with Berkshires. Careful selection of the offspring followed 
with the result that to-day the Poland-China is a fixed type. The 
animals are found in all parts of the country, but more especially 




Fig. 182. — Poland-China sow. 



410 



Effective Farming 



in the corn-belt. The color in the best specimens is jet black, 
with six white points — at the tip of the tail, the four feet, and 
on the nose or the point of the lower jaw. In size they are 
nearly as large as the Berkshires. The conformation of the 
animals, like that of the Berkshires, is of the lard type. The 
head is short and the face shows a slight dish. A distinguishing 
feature is the ears. As described by the National Association 
of Expert Judges of swine, they should be " attached to the 




183. — Chester White swine. 



head by a short, firm knuckle . . . standing up slightly at the 
base to within two-thirds of the tip, where a gentle break, 
or drop, should occur. ..." 

Chester White. — As the name indicates the Chester White 
(Fig. 183) is a white breed. There are three different strains, 
known as the original Chester White, Todds' Improved Chester 
White, and Ohio Improved Chester White. The original 
Chester Whites are natives of Chester County, Pennsylvania, 



Swine 



411 



and are the result of crossing native white swine with white 
hogs from Europe. The Todd strain was developed by Todd 
brothers, the foundation stock being a white and black boar 
from England mated with a white sow. The Ohio Improved 
strain was started by breeding and selecting the original Chester 
Whites with the purpose of securing animals of larger size 
and superior quality. The animals of the different strains are 
now found in most parts of the United States and Canada. 
They are white in color, usually with blue specks, known as 
freckles, on the skin. In size they rank with the Poland-Chinas 
and in conformation, they are somewhat longer, but usually 
show less width. The 
face is long and straight, 
the ears, drooping and 
falling gradually for- 
ward, not standing from 
the head as in the 
Poland-Chinas. 

Duroc-Jersey. — By 
crossing the Durocs and 
the Jersey Reds, swine 
found in New York and 
New Jersey, the Duroc- 
Jersey breed (Fig. 184) 

was originated. At first the animals had several undesirable 
qualities, but these have been improved by careful selection. 
The breed is very popular in the corn-belt states. In color 
the animals are red, a cherry red being preferred to lighter 
shades. In size they rank with Poland-Chinas and Chester 
Whites. In conformation they are low-set, broad and deep 
with full, smooth hams and shoulders. The head is of medium 
size, the face slightly dished, the ears, of medium size and 
point outward, forward, and slightly downward. 

Hampshire. — The breed known as the Hampshire, or Thin 
Rind, originated in England. The animals have been classed as 




Fig. 184, — Duroc-Jersey sow. 



412 



Effective Farming 




Fig. 185. — Hampshire boar. 



both lard and bacon types, but now at the Uve-stock shows, 
they are usually shown in the fat-hog classes. In color they 
are black with a broad white stripe around the body and on the 

forelegs (Fig. 185). The 
weight of the animals 
is usually a little less 
than that of the other 
lard-type breeds. In 
conformation they are 
intermediate between 
lard and bacon hogs. 
The head is rather long, 
the face straight, and 
the ears erect and point- 
ing forward. 

206. Bacon-type swine. — This type produces bacon in 
relatively large quantities. They have light hams and shoul- 
ders, but give a large proportion of bacon of good quality. 
They are inclined to be thin, narrow-bodied, long, deep, and 
upstanding. This type is best suited to conditions where peas, 
barlej^, and oats are pro- 
duced abundantly and 
cheaply. The breeds 
of bacon-type swine are 
Large Yorkshire and 
Tamworth. Both are 
native to England. 

Large Yorkshire. — 
One of the oldest Eng- 
lish breeds is the Large 
Yorkshire (Fig. 186). 
The color is white with 
bluish spots on the skin. In size the animals surpass those of 
all other breeds, individuals sometimes weighing one thousand 
pounds. In conformation the Large Yorkshire is typically a 



p.- , 


,1 


i^ 


«> 




mm 


■■'^ 


1^^] 


^^ ^^ 




:^ 


^9 



Fig. 186. — Yorkshire sow. 



Swine 413 

bacon-type hog. The sides are long and deep, the shoulders, 
thin and tapering, the head of medium length, the face, dished, 
the ears, long and carried erect. 

Tarnworth. — One of the oldest English breeds in existence 
is the Tamworth. In America the breed is found principally 
in the Eastern part of Canada, with scattered herds through- 
out the United States. The color is cherry red, and in size 
the animals rank next to the Yorkshires. In conformation 
they are of the true bacon type with long, deep, narrow bodies 
set on long legs. The snout is long and straight with no dish 
in the face and the ears are long, pointed, and erect. 

207. Regions for hog-raising. — The corn-belt states have 
for a long time held first place in the number of hogs due 
largely to the cheapness and abundance of the corn in that 
region. Corn for hogs is a nutritious and palatable feed and 
gains in weight are easily induced by its use. In the corn- 
belt states where steers are fattened, hogs are usually allowed 
to follow the steers, — that is, stay in the same inclosure and 
pick any feed dropped by them. The feeding of steers is more 
profitable when hogs are kept and the latter usually give more 
profit than if fed alone. Nearly all farmers give the hogs corn 
in addition to that which they secure from the feed-lot and this 
ration is fed to them in separate yards. Corn should not be 
fed as the exclusive grain of hogs, as it is too heating and fatten- 
ing. Feeders balance he ration by including such stuffs as 
shorts, bran, linseed meal, and tankage. 

Hogs are raised not only in the corn-belt, but in all sections 
where barley, wheat, oats, or rye and such leguminous seeds 
as peas and beans can be produced cheaply and abundantly. 
Dairy regions are well adapted to pork-raising, as the dairy 
by-products are excellent feeds for the hogs. 

The South has many features that make it suitable for 
pork-raising and the industry is increasing in that section. In 
Farmers' Bulletin 411, Feeding Hogs in the South, the following 
statements are made : 



414 Effective Farming 

1. Hogs can be raised at a profit in the South, and southern farm- 
ers should raise more of them. 

2. Hogs can not be raised profitably on corn alone. 

3. While pork can sometimes be made at a profit when corn is sup- 
plemented with nothing but a concentrated feed, still it is not wise to 
use concentrated supplements alone. 

4. Hogs can be produced cheaper when pastures are used along 
with the grains than when grains are used alone. By means of pas- 
ture crops pork can be made cheaper in the South than it is possible 
to make it in the corn belt. 

5. The advantages arising from the use of pastures are : 

Pork costs only one third to one half as much when pastures are 
used as when concentrated feeds alone are used. 

The soils are improved very materially as a result of growing the 
legumes for the hogs and feeding extra grains to the animals. 

The crops are harvested (through the hogs) without danger of loss 
from rains and without expense. 

The hogs are under favorable health conditions ; therefore losses 
from disease will be lessened. 

208. Feeds for swine. — In addition to the concentrates 
which have been mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, 
swine require succulent feed as a part of their ration. Where 
white potatoes and sweet potatoes are grown abundantly, 
there is usually some unmarketable produce that can be utilized 
as hog feed. Mangels and pumpkins make good succulent 
feeds for swine. Whenever possible hogs should be on pasture. 
Alfalfa, red clover, crimson clover, and rape make suitable 
pastures for hogs. In the South, bur clover and Bermuda-grass 
are much used as hog pasture. Skim-milk and buttermilk 
are excellent for swine. 

209. Sanitation in the hog lot. — The hog is subject to four 
very serious troubles : hog cholera, swine plague, tuberculosis, 
and animal parasites. In dealing with these, preventive meas- 
ures must be adopted. The animals must be given dry, well 
ventilated quarters that are kept clean. Feed troughs and 
drinking places must be clean and the water pure. At least 
once a month the quarters should be disinfected by spraying 



Swine 415 

with a 5 per cent solution of crude carbolic acid followed by a 
coat of whitewash. 

Hogs often suffer from lice. The insects are most numerous 
around the ears, inside the legs, and in the folds of the skin. 
In light cases they may be destroyed by washing the hogs with 
a broom moistened with an emulsion of kerosene and water, 
or by using a stock dip. . In severe cases the whole herd should 
be dipped. If the herd is badly infested, the bedding should 
be burned and the loose boards and partitions of the quarters 
removed and the whole place disinfected with crude carbolic 
acid followed by a coat of whitewash. 

The mud-wallow too often seen in hog yards should be done 
away with and a concrete wallowing place provided. This 
should be about fourteen inches deep and be built under cover 
of a shed. The ground surrounding it should be surfaced with 
crushed rock or concrete to prevent the formation of mud- 
holes. The tank should be partly filled with water and should 
be cleaned whenever it becomes dirty. Crude oil poured on 
the water will keep the hogs free from lice. 

210. Hog cholera. — This is by far the most serious disease 
of hogs. It destroys about 90 per cent of all the hogs that die 
of disease in the United States. Nearly 7,000,000 hogs have 
died in one year and the money loss has averaged about 
$30,000,000 a year for the past forty years. Hog cholera is 
highly contagious and is caused by a germ which is carried easily 
from sick animals to healthy ones. 

Methods for the prevention and treatment of the disease 
are fully outhned in Farmers' Bulletin 834 and this pamphlet 
should be secured and studied carefully by all those particularly 
interested in the subject. The following statements are from 
this bulletin : 

With the object of assisting the farmer to protect himself the fol- 
lowing suggestions are offered : Hog houses, lots, and pastures should 
be located away from streams and public highways, and the houses 
and lots should be arranged so that they may be cleaned and dis- 



416 Effective Farming 

infected readily. They should be exposed as far as possible to sun- 
light, which is the cheapest and one of the best disinfectants. Hog 
lots should not be used for yarding wagons and farm implements 
and should not be entered with team and wagon, particularly when 
loading stock for shipment to market and when returning from stock- 
yards and public highways. No one should be allowed to enter hog 
lots unless there is assurance that he does not carry infection. Farm- 
ers and their help should disinfect their shoes before entering hog 
lots after returning from public yards, sales, and neighboring farms. 
Wallow holes and cesspools should be drained, filled in, or fenced 
off. 

Runs underneath buildings should be cleaned and disinfected and 
then boarded up. Straw stacks that have been frequented by sick 
hogs should be burned or removed to the field and plowed under. In 
fact, it is a dangerous practice to leave remnants of stacks from year 
to year, and new tenants should beware of this source of danger. 

Hogs that do not recover fully from cholera should be destroyed, 
as they remain constantly dangerous. 

All animals that die on the farm, as well as the entrails removed 
from animals at butchering time, should be properly disposed of by 
burning to ashes, or by burying with quicklime away from streams 
and low places. Unless disposed of in this way they will serve to 
attract buzzards, crows, and dogs that may bring or carry away the 
germs of hog cholera. 

Newly purchased stock, stock borrowed or loaned for breeding pur- 
poses, and stock exhibited at public fairs should be placed in isolated 
pens and kept there for at least fifteen days before being turned in 
with the herd. During this quarantine care should be used to prevent 
carrying infection from these to other pens by those who feed or care 
for stock. 

Hogs should not be allowed to follow newly purchased stock unless 
such stock has been dipped or driven through a suitable disinfectant. 

If hog cholera appears on the farm a notice should be posted at 
the entrance to the premises reading " HOG CHOLERA — KEEP 
OUT," and all neighbors should be warned so that they may protect 
their herds. The infected herd should be confined to hmited quarters 
that can be cleaned daily during the presence of the disease and sprayed 
occasionally with a disinfectant consisting of one part of compound 
cresol solution to thirty parts of water, or with a recognized substitute 
therefor. 

Up to the present time no drug or combination of drugs is known 
which can be regarded as a preventive or cure for hog cholera in a 



Swine 417 

true sense of the word. It is true that a number of preparations on 
the market composed of drugs and chemicals are advertised to pro- 
tect hogs against cholera or to cure hogs affected with cholera. Many 
of these so-called cures have been tested by Federal or state institutions, 
and one and all have been found to be worthless. Farmers therefore 
are warned against investing their money and placing their faith in 
hog-cholera medicines. Only one agent known can be regarded as a 
reliable preventive. That agent is " anti-hog-cholera serum," prepared 
according to the methods originally worked out by the Bureau of 
Animal Industry. This serum is prepared as follows : 

Hogs that are immune against cholera, either naturally, as a result 
of exposure to disease, or as a result of inoculation, are injected with 
large quantities of blood from hogs sick of cholera. The blood, which 
contains the virus from the sick hogs, even in minute quantities, 
would kill susceptible pigs but does not injure immunes ; on the con- 
trary, it causes immunes to become more highly immune. After the 
immunes are injected with virus as stated, they are called "hyper- 
immunes." About ten days or two weeks after an immune has been 
hyper-immunized, its blood contains a large amount of protective sub- 
stances or antibodies, and it is from such blood that anti-hog-cholera 
serum is prepared. 

Two systems are used in protecting hogs from cholera by inocula- 
tion — ■ the " serum-alone inoculation" and the "simultaneous inocula- 
tion." The serum-alone inoculation consists merely in injecting, 
underneath the skdn with a syringe, the serum which is obtained from 
hyper-immunized hogs. The serum may be used either to immunize 
healthy hogs or to treat those that are sick of cholera. Good serum, 
properly administered, is incapable of causing any harm to the treated 
animals. It does not contain the germs of hog cholera and therefore 
can not start an outbreak of cholera, even when the methods of applica- 
tion are faulty or the serum is of low potency. It is in the safety of 
this method of treatment that its chief advantage lies. 

This method is always to be recommended in preference to any 
other for treating sick hogs. Unfortunately, in healthy hogs not 
infected with cholera it does not produce a permanent protection. 
If it did it would certainly be the only method to be recommended. 
The length of protection which follows the injection of serum alone 
seems to depend to a certain extent on the peculiarities of individual 
hogs, which can not be determined beforehand, and also to some 
extent on the dose of serum. Certain experiments have indicated that 
the immunity lasts somewhat longer in hogs which receive exceptionally 
large doses. Ordinarily a farmer may count on the immunity lasting 
2e 



418 



Effective Farming 



at least three or four weeks following the treatment of healthy hogs 
with serum alone. This immunity seems to last longer in old hogs than 
in young pigs. In some cases it apparently produces immunity which 
lasts for two or three months. At times, when healthy hogs are treated 
with serum alone and shortly thereafter exposed to cholera, they seem 
to acquire a permanent immunity, but this is not always the case, and 
therefore serum alone can not be depended on to produce a lasting 
immunity even though the treated pigs be promptly exposed to cholera. 

It has been stated that serum alone can be used to treat sick hogs. 
This is true within certain limitations. Ordinarily it is efficacious 
in the very early stage of the disease, but apparently has only slight 
effect when the disease has advanced so that a hog shows visible 
signs of sickness, such as weakness, lack of appetite, and sluggishness. 

The quantity of serum required for producing immunity or for 
curing infected animals is influenced by a number of conditions, chief 
among these being the condition and susceptibility of the pigs and 
the strength or potency of the serum which is used. No hard and 
fast rule can be laid down, but as a sort of general guide the doses 
given below are suggested : 

Doses for Sebum-alone Inoculation 



Weight of Hog 


Dose op Serum 


Below 10 pounds 

10 to 15 pounds 

20 to 30 pounds 

40 to 75 pounds 

100 to 150 pounds 

175 pounds and over 


10 cubic centimeters. 

15 cubic centimeters. 

20 to 25 cubic centimeters. 

30 cubic centimeters. 

40 to 60 cubic centimeters. 

80 cubic centimeters. 



If the herd is infected the dose of serum should be increased slightly 
for all apparently well hogs, and all hogs showing high temperatures 
or other evidence of disease should receive at least a dose and a half 
of serum. 

In the simultaneous method of inoculation, hog-cholera virus is 
used in addition to the serum. It has been stated above that the 
serum alone produces an immunity which lasts for only a very short 
time. The theory of the simultaneous inoculation is to administer 
the germs of hog cholera in the virus and at the same time to give 
a dose of serum which will protect the hogs from cholera. The virus 



Swine 



419 



enters the system of the hog and causes a reaction which results in 
immunity like that which is found in hogs that recover from a natural 
attack of the disease. The serum being given at the same time 
prevents death or serious sickness which would otherwise be caused 
by the virus, and through the combined action of these two agents 
the hogs are rendered immune against cholera for life. 

In administering the simultaneous inoculation the serum is in- 
jected in the manner already explained, and the virus is injected in 
the same manner but on the opposite side of the body. The virus, 
of course, is given in a very small dose as compared with the serum. 
The doses for simultaneous inoculation are indicated below. 

Doses of Serum and Virus in Simultaneous Inoculation of 
Healthy Hogs 



Weight of Hogs 


Dose of Sertjm 


Dose op Virus 


Below 10 pounds 


10 cubic centimeters . . 




10 to 15 pounds . . 


15 cubic centimeters . . 


1 cubic centimeter. 


20 to 30 pounds . . 


20 to 25 cubic centimeters 


1 cubic centimeter. 


40 to 75 pounds . 


30 cubic centimeters . . 


1 cubic centimeter. 


100 to 150 pounds . 


40 to 60 cubic centimeters 


2 cubic centimeters. 


175 pounds and over 


80 cubic centimeters . 


2 cubic centimeters. 



If the herd is infected, the dose of serum should be slightly increased 
for all apparently healthy hogs, and all those showing high temperature 
or other evidence of disease should receive at least a dose and a half 
of serum and no virus. 

While the serum alone has the advantage of being harmless, it 
should be remembered that it has the disadvantage of producing 
only a transitory immunity. The conditions are precisely reversed 
in the case of the simultaneous inoculation. In this case the immunity 
is prolonged, and it is rare to find a hog which has been immunized 
properly by the simultaneous method which again becomes susceptible 
to cholera. The principal objection to the simultaneous inoculation 
is the element of danger caused by the injection of the virus of cholera. 
If the serum should not be of proper strength, or if a sufficient dose of 
serum should not be administered, or if the work is not done properly, 
a case of hog cholera may be produced. Sufficient work, however, 
has been done to show that the simultaneous inoculation can be ad- 
ministered with safety. Certain important things are to be re- 



420 Effective Farming 

membered in this connection. Use good serum, and give plenty of it. 
Enough serum should be given to prevent any signs of illness in the 
treated hogs. To get a lasting immunity it is not necessary to render 
the hogs visibly sick from the injection. Apparently just as firm 
immunity is secured when hogs show no symptoms of illness as when 
they are made sick by the injection. This treatment should be 
handled carefully, and those who have studied this question agree 
that the simultaneous inoculation should be administered only by 
competent veterinarians or by skilled laymen who have had adequate 
training in its use. 

The United States Department of Agriculture does not prepare 
anti-hog-cholera serum for sale or distribution. For information 
as to where serum may be obtained and the help that may be had in 
combating hog cholera, write the Bureau of Animal Industry, United 
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, or the State 
Veterinarian, Live Stock Sanitary Board, or State Agricultural 
College of your state. 

211. Mineral matter and tonic for hogs. — It is good 
practice to have before the hogs at all times a mixture of min- 
eral substances. One made of four parts wood-ashes, one part 
salt, and one part sulfur is recommended. Another is made 
of four parts wood-ashes, one part salt, one part iron sulfate, 
and two parts air-slaked lime. 

A tonic recommended by the United States Department of 
Agriculture as a powder condition, consists of the following in- 
gredients thoroughly mixed : 

Pounds 

Wood charcoal 1 

Sulfur 1 

Sodium chloride 2 

Sodium bicarbonate 2 

Sodium hyposulfite 2 

Sodium sulfate 1 

Antimony sulfide (black antimony) 1 

The powder is given with the feed in the proportion of a 
tablespoonful to each two hundred pounds of weight not 
oftener than once a day. 



Swine 



421 



QUESTIONS 

1. Distinguish between lard- type and bacon-type swine. 

2. Contrast the Poland-China and the Berkshire breeds. 

3. Which breeds of swine are well suited to conditions in the corn- 
belt states? 

4. Contrast the Large Yorkshire and the Tarn worth breeds. 

5. How can you tell a Chester White from a Large Yorkshire, a 
Duroc-Jersey from a Tamworth, a Poland-China from a Berkshire? 

6. Tell some reason why hogs can be produced profitably in the 
South. 

7. Name some plants that make good pasture for swine. 

8. What preventive measures must be taken to keep swine 
healthy? 

9. Tell how to make a concrete hog-wallow. 
10. Give formulas for mineral mixtures for hogs. 

EXERCISES 

1. Scoring and judging lard-type hogs. — Score and judge hogs 
as directed for this work with the other classes of live-stock using the 
score-card below, or one from some other source. 

Score-card for Fat Lard-type Hogs^ 



Scale of Points 



General appearance — 30 per cent : 

1. Weight, score according to age 

2. Form, deep, broad, medium length ; smooth, 

compact, symmetrical; standing squarely 
on medium short legs 

3. Quality, hair smooth and fine ; bone medium 

size, clean, strong ; general appearance 
smooth and refined 

4. Covering, finished ; deep, even, mellow, free 

from lumps and wrinkles 



Stand- 
ard 



10 

6 
10 



Points De- 
ficient 



Stu- 
dent's 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 



From Purdue University Circular 29. 



422 



Effective Farming 



Score-card for Fat Lard-type Hogs ( Continued) 



Scale op Points 



Stand- 
ard 



Points De- 
ficient 



Stu- 
dent's 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 



6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 



12. 
13. 



by 



Head and neck — - 8 per cent : 

5. Snout, medium length, not coarse . . 
Eyes, not sunken, clear, not obscured 

wrinkles 

Face, short ; cheeks full 

Ears, fine, medium size, attached neatly . . 

Jowl, full, firm, neat 

Neck, thick, short, smooth to shoulder . . 
Forequarters — 12 per cent : 

11. Shoulders, broad, deep, smooth, compact on 

top 

Breast, full, smooth, neat 

Legs, straight, short, strong ; bone clean ; 
hard ; pasterns short, strong, upright ; feet 

medium size 

Body — - 33 per cent : 

14. Chest, deep, wide, large girth 

15. Sides deep, full, smooth, medium length , . 

16. Back, broad, strongly arched, thickly and 

evenly covered 

17. Loin, wide, thick, strong 

18. Belly, straight, smooth, firm 

Hindquarters — 17 per cent : 

19. Hips, wide apart, smooth 

20. Rump, long, level, wide, evenly fleshed . 

21. Ham, heavily fleshed, full, firm, deep, wide . 

22. Legs, straight, short, strong ; bone clean, 

hard ; pasterns short, strong, upright ; feet 
medium sized 



Total 100 



2. Scoring and judging bacon-type hogs.^ — In sections where bacon 
swine are important a special score-card should be used for this type. 



^ From Agricultural Education 
Department of Agriculture. 



Monthly, No. 7, Vol. II, U. S. 



Swine 423 

The following description will aid in adapting the score-card and de- 
scription of the lard hog to the bacon type. 

Form. — The form of swine of the true bacon type is apparent at a 
glance, especially in contrast with the lard type. The bacon hog has 
a longer body than the lard type, showing less thickness and depth. 
Associated with the longer body are longer legs and snout. 

Quality. — Although the bacon hog may have a coarser bone it is 
marked by more refined quality than the hog of lard type. The hair 
should be fine and silky and lie close to the body. The head and legs 
should present a trim, clear-cut appearance. 

Condition and weight. — A thin hog of a lard type cannot be sold 
to advantage on a market which requires Wiltshire sides, because it 
will lack the characteristic finish demanded for such bacon. There 
should be an interspersing of fat and lean with a covering of 1 to 1^ 
inches of fat. This covering should give the carcass a smooth, firm 
finish. The weight most acceptable for bacon hogs is from 180 to 
190 pounds, although weights above and below these are accepted. 

Head and neck. — This type is characterized by a longer neck and 
snout than the lard type. The jowl is also lighter and neater. A neck 
too long indicates a poor feeder, while a very short neck with a full jowl 
indicates a tendency to put on fat. 

Forequarters. — The shoulders should not be prominent but He in 
close to the body, having good width and depth with ample covering of 
flesh. The breast should not be full. 

Body. — The chest of a bacon hog is deep and full but not too broad. 
Although the back carries the most valuable meat it should not be very 
broad, as a broad back denotes a tendency to fatten. The width should 
be the same from shoulder to ham. The sides are of most importance 
in hogs of this type as this portion is depended upon for bacon. The 
side should be of moderate depth and as long as is consistent with 
strength in the back. A sway back is objectionable. The sides should 
be smooth, free from all wrinkles and seams. 

Hindquarters. — There is not the extreme development in the hind- 
quarters that there is in the lard hog. The rump should be level, long, 
and moderately broad. The hams are long, and tapering, being rela- 
tively thin but broad from front to rear. Although the legs are longer 
than in the lard type they should be clean-cut, showing bone smooth, 
clean, and hard. It is important that the legs be straight and placed 
well at the four corners of the body, with strong pasterns to support 
a good weight. 

3. Cuts of pork. — Make a study of the cuts of pork in the same 
manner as directed for beef and mutton. Refer to Illinois Bulletin 147. 



424 Effective Farming 



REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 644- 

681. The Macmillan Co. 
Coburn, F. D., Swine in America. Orange Judd Co. 
Day, George E., Swine. Kenyon Printing Co. 

Harper, M. W., Animal Husbandry for Schools. The Macmillan Co. 
Farmers' Bulletin 205, Pig Management. 
Farmers' Bulletin 411, Feeding Hogs in the South. 
Farmers' Bulletin 566, Boys' Pig Clubs. 
Farmers' Bulletin 438, Hog Houses. 
Farmers' Bulletin 765, Breeds of Swine. 
Farmers' Bulletin 834, Hog Cholera: Prevention and Treatment. 



CHAPTER XXI 

POULTRY 

Types of poultry. 
Breeds of chickens. 

Egg breeds. 

General-purpose breeds. 

Meat breeds. 
Poultry houses. 
Natural incubation. 
Natural brooding. 
Artificial incubation. 
Artificial brooding. 
Feeding for egg production. 
Feeding for meat production. 

The importance of poultry can scarcely be realized. Six 
hundred million dollars are brought annually to the farmers 
of the United States for eggs alone, and there is a similar pro- 
portion in Canada. Much of this revenue goes to the large 
poultry-raising establishments, but a very considerable part 
of it also goes to those farmers that keep only a few hens as 
an incident of their business. There is no live-stock so well 
adapted to so many farm conditions as is poultry. There is 
also special fascination in the rearing of fowls. Young people 
are particularly interested in it, and all the products are wanted 
on the table or find a ready demand in the market. The Boys' 
and Girls' Poultry Clubs have been a great incentive to poultry 
raising. In many of the states the federal or state government 
pays an expert poultry-man to devote all of his time to the 
furthering of this work. The county agent will tell you how 
to reach him. There is a very attractive popular literature on 

poultry raising. 

425 



426 



Effective Farming 



212. Types of poultry. — Chickens are classified in two 
ways, according to the origin of the breed and according to the 
utility of the fowls. As to breed, they are listed as Mediter- 
ranean, American, Asiatic, English, Belgian, French, German, 
Dutch, and Polish with special classes including game. Ban- 
tams, Silkies, Sultans, and Frizzles. From the utility stand- 
point they are classified as egg, general-purpose, meat, and 



mTTLE^ 




»/Il«' -^^ -^ " •* 



Fig. 187. — Glossary chart giving the names of the various sections 
of a male fowl. 



ornamental, or fancy, breeds. For school work this classifi- 
cation from the utility standpoint is especially appHcable and 
is the one considered here. As with the other classes of live- 
stock, the external parts of the fowl should be studied. Fig. 
187 is from a drawing prepared by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and shows these parts very clearly. 

The general term poultry includes, besides chickens, ducks, 



Poultry 



427 



geese, Guinea fowls, peafowls, and turkeys. In tlie United 
States, chickens are by far the most important class, poultry 
as a whole being approximately 95 per cent chickens, 1.5 
per cent geese, 1 per cent turkeys, slightly less than 1 per 




Fig. 188. — Light Brahma male. Most popular of the meat type. 
Fair layers of large brown eggs. 



cent ducks, and the remaining classes together about 1.5 
per cent. 

Fowls of the meat type (Figs. 188 and 189) have a short, 
wide back, a well developed breast, a box-like body, and carry 
a large quantity of flesh. Fowls of the egg type (Fig. 190) 
have long backs, full chests, and well developed abdomens ; 
this form is conducive to egg-producing capacity and stamina. 



428 



Effective Farming 



Fowls of the general-purpose, or utility, type (Figs. 191, 192, 
193) show a conformation somewhat between the meat and 
egg types. They are bred to produce more eggs than the fowls 
of the meat type and more meat than the fowls of the egg type. 

They may be considered 
to be dual-purpose ani- 
mals. 

Prolificacy of egg-pro- 
duction is often indi- 
cated by the size of the 
comb, small combs usu- 
ally being found on the 
birds of the meat type, 
large combs on those 
of the egg type, and 
medium-sized combs on 
those of the general- 
purpose type. The dif- 
ferences can be seen in 
the pictures already re- 
ferred to. 

The habits of the 
different types of fowls 
vary considerably. 
Birds of the meat type 
are slow movers and 
of a quiet disposition, 
tendencies that are conducive to fat. They may be likened 
to beef animals in this respect. Fowls of the egg type are 
nervous, alert, active, and constantly foraging for food. They 
are similar in disposition to dairy cows that show nervous 
temperament. Fowls of the general-purpose type show a 
blending in disposition of the other two ; they are not so 
slow-moving as the meat type and not so alert as the egg 
type. 




Fig. 189. — Buff Cochin male, showing the 
feathering of the legs and toes. Meat type 
of poultry. 




Fig. 190. — White Leghorn male. The 
most popular breed for commercial 
poultry farms. The hens are non- 
sitters ; they make excellent summer 
layers, and when cared for properly 
make good winter layers. 



Fig. 191. — Barred Plymouth Rock male, 
showing the barring desired in this 
popular breed of general-purpose fowl. 
Barred Rocks mature early and are 
good winter layers. 




Fig. 192. — Rhode Island Red male, show- 
ing the long back and low carriage of 
tail desired in this popular general-pur- 
pose breed. 

429 



Fig. 193. — White Wyandotte male. A 
bird made up of curves. The hens are 
good winter layers and the cockerels are 
in demand for broilers. 



430 



Effective Farming 



213. Breeds of chickens. — The Standard of Perfection, 
the publication of the American Poultry Association, lists 
thirty-eight breeds and one hundred four varieties of chickens, 
including both utility and fancy fowls. In Table XV are 
given the names of the utility breeds and varieties most 
commonly found in the United States, their native home, and 
the color of the egg-shells. 

TABLE XV 

American Breeds of Chickens 
egg breeds 



Breed 


Variety 


Native Home 


Color of 
Egg-Shell 


Leghorn . . . 


Single-comb black 
Single-comb brown 
Rose-comb brown 
Single-comb buff 
Rose-comb buff 
Silver 

Single-comb white 
Rose-comb white 


Italy 


White 


Ancona 


Mottled 
Single-comb 


Italy 


White 


Andalusian . . 


Blue 


Italy 


White 


Minorca 


Single-comb black 
Rose-comb black 
Single-comb white 


Italy 


White 


Spanish 


White-faced black 


Spain 


White 


Hamburg . . . 


Black 

Golden-penciled 

Golden-spangled 

Silver-penciled 

Silver-spangled 


Holland 


White 


Campine ... 


Golden 
Silver 


Belgium 


White 



Poultry 



431 



TABLE XV {Continued) 

GENERAL-PURPOSE BREEDS 



Breed 


Variety 


Native Home 


Color of 
Egg-Shell 


Plymouth Rock . 


Barred 


America 


Brown 




Buff 




or tinted 




Columbian 








Partridge 








Silver-penciled 








White 






Wyandotte . . 


Black 


America 


Brown 




Buff 




or tinted 




Columbian 








Golden-laced 








Partridge 








Silver-laced 








White 






Rhode Island Red 


Single-comb 


America 


Brown 




Rose-comb 




or tinted 


Dominique . . 


Rose-comb 


America 


Brown 
or tinted 


Java .... 


Black 


America 


Brown 




Mottled 




or tinted 


Orpington . . 


Single-comb buff 
Single-comb black 
Single-comb white 


England 


Tinted 


Dorking . . . 


Colored 

Silver-gray 

White 


England 


White 


Houdan . . . 


Mottled 


France 


White 



MEAT BREEDS 



Brahma . . . 


Light 
Dark 


India 


Brown 
or tinted 


Cochin . . . 


Buff 

Partridge 
White 
Black 


China 


Brown 
or tinted 


Langshan . . . 


Black 
White 


China 


Brown 
or tinted 



432 Effective Farming 

214. Poultry houses. — Two general types of houses for 
poultry are in use — the colony house and the continuous 
apartment house. Colony houses are small and are usually 
built on skids, or runners, and moved about from place to place 
as occasion demands. Continuous apartment houses are 
built where they are to stand permanently. Many different 
styles of houses of each type are in use. A farmer or a pupil 
desiring to build poultry houses will profit by corresponding 
with officers of his state experiment station and with the Divi- 
sion of Poultry Investigations of the Department of Agricul- 
ture at Washington from whom he can secure much informa- 
tion and plans for the buildings. Among the requirements 
to be considered in building poultry houses are : (1) they must 
be on well drained soils ; (2) they should face the south or 
southeast ; (3) they should be so built that they can be kept 
clean ; (4) ventilation must be provided for ; (5) room for a 
scratching place near the house must be available. 

215. Natural incubation. — The hen should be moved from 
her regular laying nest at night and dusted thoroughly with 
insect powder before putting on the new nest. At first one 
or two china eggs should be put under her and a board placed 
in front of the nest to keep her from leaving. On the second 
day, in the evening, the board should be removed and feed and 
water placed where the hen can reach it. If she leaves the nest 
and after feeding returns to it, she really desires to sit. The 
china eggs should then be removed and those that are to be 
incubated substituted. During the period of incubation, 
twenty-one days, plenty of feed and water must be provided for 
the hen. At hatching time she should not be disturbed unless 
she becomes restless and pecks at or steps on the chicks, in 
which case the chicks that are hatched should be removed as 
soon as they are dry, placed in a basket that is lined with a 
piece of wool cloth, and put in a warm place. When all 
of the eggs are hatched, these chicks are put back with the 
hen and all removed to the brood coop. 



Poultry 433 

The poultry specialists of the United States Department 
of Agriculture make the following suggestions about natural 
incubation : 

'' If several hens are sitting in the same room, see that they 
are kept on the nests, allowing them to come off only once a 
day to receive feed and water, the feed to consist of corn, wheat, 
or both. If there are any that do not desire to come off them- 
selves, they should be taken off. Hens usually return to their 
nests before there is any danger of the eggs chilling, but if they 
do not go back in half an hour in ordinary weather, they should 
be put on the nest. Where a large number of sitters are kept 
in one room it is advisable to let them off in groups of from four 
to six at a time. The eggs and nests should be examined and 
cleaned, removing all broken eggs and washing those that are 
soiled; in the latter case the soiled nesting material should be 
removed and clean straw added. Nests containing broken 
eggs that the hen is allowed to sit on soon become infested with 
mites and lice. These cause the hens to become uneasy and 
leave the nest, and hence the loss of valuable sittings of eggs. 
In mite-infested nests the hen, if fastened in, will often be found 
standing over rather than sitting on the eggs. 

" Many eggs that are laid in the late winter and early spring 
are infertile. For this reason it is advisable to set several hens 
at the same time. After the eggs have been under the hens 
from five to seven days, the time depending somewhat on the 
color and thickness of the shells — white-shelled eggs being 
easier to test than those having brown shells — they should 
be tested, the infertile eggs and dead germs removed, and the 
fertile eggs put back under the hen. In this way it is often 
possible to put all the eggs that several hens originally started 
to sit on under fewer hens and reset the others. For example, 
thirty eggs are set under three hens at the same time, ten under 
each. At the end of seven days we find on testing the eggs 
from all the hens that ten are infertile, which leaves us twenty 
eggs to reset, which we do by putting them under two hens 
2p 



434 Effective Farming 

and have the remaining hen sit over again after she has sat 
only seven days. In this way considerable time can be saved 
in hatching operations. 

" An egg, whether impregnated or not, has a small grayish 
spot on the surface of the yolk, known as the ' germinal spot/ 
As soon as a fertile egg is placed under a hen, or in an incubator, 
development begins. All eggs should be tested at least twice 
during the period of incubation, preferably on the seventh 
and fourteenth days, and the infertile eggs and dead germs 
removed. White eggs can be tested on the fourth or fifth 
day, while the development in eggs having brown shells often 
cannot be seen by the use of an ordinary egg tester until the 
seventh day. Dead germs soon decay and give off a bad odor, 
if allowed to remain under the hen. Infertile eggs make good 
feed for young chickens and are often used in the home for 
culinary purposes. Electric or gas lamps may be used in a 
box with a hole slightly smaller than an egg cut in the side of 
the box and at the same level as the light. They may also be 
tested by sunlight, or daylight, using a shutter or curtain with 
a small hole in it for the light to shine through. 

^' A good home-made egg-tester, or candler, can be made 
from a large shoe box, or any box that is large enough to go 
over a lamp, by removing the end and cutting a hole a little 
larger than the size of a quarter in the bottom of the box, so 
that when it is set over a kerosene lamp the hole in the bottom 
will be opposite the blaze. A hole the size of a silver dollar 
should be cut in the top of the box to allow the heat to escape. 

" The eggs are tested with the large end up, so that the size 
of the air cell may be seen as well as the condition of the embryo. 
The testing should take place in a dark room. The infertile 
egg, when held before the small hole, with the lamp lighted 
inside the box, will look perfectly clear, the same as a fresh 
one, while a fertile egg will show a small dark spot, known as 
the embryo, with a mass of little blood veins extending in all 
directions, if the embryo is living ; if dead, and the egg has 



Poultry 435 

been incubated for at least forty-six hours, the blood settles 
away from the embryo toward the edges of the yolk, forming 
in some cases an irregular circle of blood, known as a blood 
ring. Eggs vary in this respect, some showing only a streak 
of blood. All infertile eggs should be removed at the first 
test. The eggs containing strong, living embryos are dark and 
well filled up on the fourteenth day, and show a clear, sharp, 
distinct line of demarcation between the air cell and the grow- 
ing embryo, while dead germs show only partial development, 
and lack this clear, distinct outline." 

216. Natural brooding. — Before moving the hen and chicks 
to the brood coops, she should be powdered with insect powder 
to get rid of the hce. The brood coop must be kept clean, and 
if mites are found, the coop should be sprayed with kerosene. 
An inch or so of sand or a thin layer of straw should be kept 
on the floor of the coop and the coop moved each day to fresh 
shady ground. As long as she will care for them the hen should 
be left with the chicks. The following directions from Farm- 
ers' Bulletin 624 will be found very satisfactory for feeding 
the chickens : 

" As soon as the chickens will eat whole wheat, cracked 
corn, and other grains, the small-sized chick feed can be elim- 
inated. In addition to the above feeds the chickens' growth 
can be hastened if they are given sour milk, skim-milk, or 
buttermilk to drink. Growing chickens kept on a good range 
may be given all their feed in a hopper, mixing two parts by 
weight of cracked corn with one part of wheat, or equal parts 
of cracked corn, wheat, and oats in one hopper and the dry 
mash for chickens in another. The beef scrap may be left 
out of the dry mash and fed in a separate hopper, so that the 
chickens can eat all of this feed they desire. If the beef scrap 
is to be fed separately it is advisable to wait until the chicks 
are ten days old, although many poultry men put the beef 
scrap before the young chickens at the start without bad 
results. Chickens confined to small yards should always be 



436 Effective Farming 

supplied with green feed, such as lettuce, sprouted oats, alfalfa, 
or clover, but the best place to raise chickens successfully is 
on a good range where no extra green feed is required. Fine 
charcoal, grit, and oyster shell should be kept before the 
chickens at all times, and cracked or ground bone may be fed 
where the chickens are kept in small bare yards, but the latter 
feed is not necessary for chickens that have a good range." 

Young chickens should be fed from three to five times 
daily, depending on one's experience in feeding. Undoubtedly 
chickens can be grown faster by feeding five times daily than by 
feeding three times daily, but it should be borne in mind that 
more harm can be done to the young chickens by overfeeding 
than by underfeeding, and at no time should they be fed more 
than barely to satisfy their appetites and to keep them exer- 
cising, except at the evening or last meal, when they should be 
given all they will eat. Greater care must be exercised not to 
overfeed young chicks that are confined than those that have 
free range, as leg weakness is apt to result in those confined. 

" The young chicks may be fed any time after they are 36 to 
48 hours old, whether they are with a hen or in a brooder. The 
first feed may contain either hard-boiled eggs, johnnycake, 
stale bread, pinhead oatmeal, or rolled oats, which feeds or 
combinations may be used with good results. Mashes mixed 
with milk are of considerable value in giving the chickens a 
good start in life, but the mixtures should be fed in a crumbly 
mass and not in a sloppy condition. After the chickens are 
two months old they may be fed four times daily, and after 
three months old three times daily, with good results. Johnny- 
cake composed of the following ingredients in the proportions 
named is a very satisfactory feed for young chickens : one 
dozen infertile eggs or one pound of sifted beef scraps to ten 
pounds of corn meal ; add enough milk to make a pasty mash, 
and one tablespoonful of baking soda. Bake into a cake. Dry 
bread crumbs may be mixed with hard boiled eggs, making 
about one-fourth of the mixture of eggs, or rolled oats may bQ 



Poultry 437 

used in place of the bread crumbs. Feed the bread crumbs, 
rolled oats, or johnnycake mixtures five times daily for the 
first week, then gradually substitute for one or two feeds of 
the mixture, finely cracked grains of equal parts by weight of 
cracked wheat, finely cracked corn, and pinhead oatmeal or 
hulled oats, to which about 5 per cent of cracked peas or broken 
rice and 2 per cent of charcoal, millet, or rape seed may be 
added. A commercial chick feed may be substituted if de- 
sired. The above ration can be fed until the chicks are two 
weeks old, when they should be placed on grain and a dry or 
wet mash mixture. 

" After the chicks are ten days old a good growing mash, 
composed of two parts by weight of bran, two parts middlings, 
one part cornmeal, one part low-grade wheat flour or red-dog 
flour, and 10 per cent sifted beef scrap, may be placed in a 
hopper and left before them at all times. The mash may be 
fed either wet or dry ; if wet, only moisture (either milk or 
water) should be added to make the feed crumbly, but in no 
sense sloppy. When this growing mash or mixture is not used 
a hopper containing bran should be accessible to the chickens 
at all times. 

" When one has only a few chickens it is less trouble to pur- 
chase the prepared chick feeds, but where a considerable num- 
ber are reared it is sometimes cheaper to buy the finely cracked 
grains and mix them together. Many chick feeds contain a 
large quantity of grit and may contain grains of poor quality, 
so that they should be carefully examined and the quality 
guaranteed before they are purchased." 

217. Artificial incubation. — Lack of care and attention to 
details are responsible for the small hatches that so commonly 
result in artificial incubation. The following summary of 
directions by Harry M. Lamon in Farmers' Bulletin 585 is an 
excellent guide to those using incubators : 

" Follow the manufacturer's directions in setting up and 
operating an incubator. . 



438 Effective Farming 

" See that the incubator is running steadily at the desired 
temperature before fiiUng with eggs. Do not add fresh eggs 
to a tray containing eggs which are undergoing incubation. 

" Turn the eggs twice daily after the second and until the 
nineteenth day. Cool the eggs once daily, according to the 
weather, from the seventh to the nineteenth day. 

'^ Turn the eggs before caring for the lamps. 

" Attend to the machine carefully at regular hours. i 

" Keep the lamp and wick clean. 

" Test the eggs on the seventh and fourteenth days. 

" Do not open the machine after the eighteenth day until 
the chickens are hatched." 

218. Artificial brooding. — When the chickens are to be 
brooded artificially, they are usually left in the incubator with- 
out feed for twenty-four to thirty-six hours after hatching. 
After this period they are taken to the brooder which should 
have been in operation for a day or more at the proper temper- 
ature. The proper temperature during the time the chicks 
are in the brooder depends on how near the thermometer is 
to the source of heat, the age of the chickens, and the weather. 
Usually, the temperature for the first ten days will run from 
90 to 100° F., averaging from 93° to 95°; for the next ten 
days, it should be reduced to 85°, and then as long as the 
chicks require heat be kept at about 75°. The brooder lamp, 
if one is used, should be cleaned every day, and the brooder 
should be inspected often to see whether it is at the correct 
temperature. The chickens are usually allowed to stay in the 
brooder until they are from six to ten weeks old, the exact time 
depending on the weather and the condition of the chickens. 

Brooders in which hard coal is the source of heat are used 
on many poultry farms and seem to give satisfactory results. 
They are much easier to care for than the lamp type. 

219. Feeding for egg production. — Hens require a narrow 
ration. Wheeler, from a large number of tests at the New 
York Experiment Station, has found that a ration having a 



Poultry 439 

nutritive ratio of 1 : 4.2 gives good results. The natural 
feed of poultry consists of seeds, insects, green forage, and grit 
and to provide feeds similar to these, the chickens should be 
given grains, mill-products, meat-meals, skim-milk, oyster 
shells, green feed, and grit. The following mixtures are recom- 
mended by the Poultry Department of Cornell University, 
Ithaca, New York : 

Grain 

winter ration 

Wheat 60 pounds 

Corn 60 pounds 

Oats 30 pounds 

Buckwheat : 30 pounds 

SUMMER RATION 

Wheat 60 pounds 

Corn 60 pounds 

Oats 30 pounds 

DRY MASH 

Corn meal 60 pounds 

Wheat middUngs 60 pounds 

Wheat bran 30 pounds 

Alfalfa meal 10 pounds 

Oil meal 10 pounds 

Beef scrap 50 pounds 

Salt 1 pound 

The hens should eat about half as much mash by weight as 
whole grains. Good results are obtained by giving a light 
feeding of grain in the morning and a larger one in the after- 
noon. The grain is fed in straw spread on the floor of the pen 
to induce the fowls to take exercise. The quantity should be 
about what the fowls will clean up nicely. The mash is usually 
fed dry in a hopper and is kept before the hens all the time so 
they can help themselves at will. Succulent feed, also, should 
be available for the hens. Beets, cabbage, sprouted oats, and 
green clover are good for this purpose, when the fowls are kept 
in yards. Hens on free range will forage for succulence. 



440 Effective Farming 

Grit, cracked oyster shells, bone, and charcoal should be kept 
in hoppers before the fowls at all times. They are necessary 
for egg-making and the grinding of the feed. 

220. Feeding for meat production. — Fowls that are to be 
sold for meat should be fattened for at least ten days before 
they are put on the market. This will greatly improve the 
quality of the meat. They should be confined in small pens 
or crates during the feeding period ; this prevents them from 
taking much exercise. Just before they are placed in the inclo- 
sures and twice during the fattening period, they should be 
dusted with insect powder to free them from lice. The ration 
should be a mixture of grains (usually ground) and animal 
products like meat meal and skim-milk. A ration that has 
been recommended is a mixture of corn meal, five parts (by 
weight), ground oats with hulls removed, one part, meat meal, 
one part, all moistened with sour milk and fed three times a 
day. The fowls must be brought to full feed gradually, start- 
ing with a small quantity the first day and increasing a httle 
at each feeding until they are getting all they will eat. A 
week is usually required to bring them to full feed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the general conformation of the fowls of each of the 
three utility types. 

2. Discuss the habits of fowls of the three types. 

3. What two general types of poultry houses are in use? From 
whom can one secure information concerning the different kinds of 
houses ? 

4. State the requirements to be considered when building poultry 
houses. 

5. What is meant by natural incubation of eggs? By artificial 
incubation of eggs ? 

6. Give directions for brooding chickens when a hen is used. 

7. What kind of ration should be fed to laying hens ? 

8. Outline the method of feeding young chickens. 

9. Tell how to test eggs for fertility. 
10. What should sitting hens be fed? 



Poultry 



441 



Score-card for Utility Poultry ^ 



Variety 



Points 


Per- 
fect 


Scor- 
er's 


Cor- 
rected 


General appearance, 30 points : 

Weight, according to age 


2 

8 

6 






Form, long, moderately deep, broad, low-set, con- 
forming to breed type, top line and under line 
straight 






Condition, face and head appurtenances bright 
red, eye bright and full, feathers glossy, uni- 
formly well fleshed throughout 






Style, active and vigorous, not restless, showing 
strong character 


7 

7 

5 

3 
3 
2 
2 

1 

4 

4 

6 
10 

12 
4 
6 

8 






Quality, bone moderately fine, feathers soft, 
skin and scales mellow, flesh fine texture, evenly 
distributed 






Head and neck, 20 points : 

Head short, broad between the eyes, neither 
coarse nor snakj^ in appearance 




Comb medium in size, bright in color, fine texture, 

and well attached 

Beak short, stout, broad at the base, well curved 






Eye clear and full 


. . . . 




Face short, full, with a clean-cut appearance . 






Wattles and lobes medium in size, fine in texture, 
and smooth 






Neck moderate in length, well joined to head and 
shoulders 






Body and legs, 50 points : 

Shoulders broad and rather flat on top .... 






Back broad, fair length, width well carried back . 






Breast moderately deep and wide, full and round 

Keel well forward, long and straight, well covered 

with flesh throughout 






Tail well spread and full, no pinched effect . 






Thighs medium length, plump 






Legs straight, fairly short, set well apart, strong 
but not coarse 






Total 


100 













Remarks 

Name of scorer Date 



^From U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 281. 



442 



Effective Farming 



EXERCISES 

1. Classes of poultry. — The teacher should get for class observa- 
tion two or three fowls of each of the utility types and place them in 
coops, or yards, near the school where they can be easily observed. Try 
to get fowls of about the same age. For the meat type, use Brahma, 
Cochin, or Langshan ; for the general purpose type, Plymouth Rock, 
Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, or Orpington ; for the egg type, Leg- 
horn, Minorca, or Hamburg. (See Figs. 18& to 193.) 

2. Scoring of poultry. — Making use of the score-card given on the 
previous page, score several birds. This score-card is a very good one 
and is arranged from the utility standpoint. 



REFERENCES 

Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, pp. 525- 

587. The Macmillan Co. 
Standard of Perfection, American Poultry Association. Mansfield, O. 
Watson, George C, Farm Poultry. The Macmillan Co. 
Lewis, H. R., Poultry Laboratory Guide. The Macmillan Co. 
Lewis, H. R., Productive Poultry Husbandry. Lippincott Co. 
Joos, Robert, Success with Hens. Forbes and Co. 
Farmers' Bulletin 200, Turkeys. 
Farmers' Bulletin 697, Duck-Raising. 
Farmers' Bulletin 684, Squab- Raising. 
Farmers' Bulletin 452, Capons and Caponizing. 
Farmers' Bulletin 471, Eggs and their Value as Food. 
Farmers' Bulletin 682, A Simple Trap Nest for Poultry. 
Farmers' Bulletin 445, Marketing Eggs through the Creamery. 
Farmers' Bulletin 528, Hints to Poultry Raisers. 
Farmers' Bulletin 287, Poultry Management. 
Farmers' Bulletin 594, Shipping Eggs by Parcel Post. 
Farmers' Bulletin 585, Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hens' Eggs. 
Farmers' Bulletin 624, Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens. 
Farmers' Bulletin 574, Poultry House Construction. 
Farmers' Bulletin 562, Organization of Boys' and Girls' Poultry Clubs. 
Farmers' Bulletin 530, Importatit Poultry Diseases. 
Farmers' Bulletin 767, Goose Raising. 
Farmers' Bulletin 791, Turkey Raising. 

Farmers' Bulletins 806 and 898, Standard Varieties of Chickens. 
U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 464, Lessons on Poultry. 
Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 

The Interior Quality of Market Eggs. 



353, 



CHAPTER XXII 
FARM MACHINERY 

Lack of care of farm machinery. 
Plows. 

Walking, sulky, gang, disc, subsoil. 
Harrows. 

Disc, spring-tooth, spike-tooth, blade. 
Cultivators. 

One-horse, straddle-row. 
Weeders. 
Planting implements. 

Broadcast seeders. 

Grain drills. 

Corn- and cotton-planters. 

Potato-planters. 

Transplanters. 
Hay-harvesting machinery. 

Mowers. 

Rakes. 

Tedders. 

Loaders. 

Stackers. 

Harpoon forks and slings. 
Small grain, corn, and potato harvesters. 
Threshing machines. 
Farm tractors. 

In the days when the crooked stick was used as a plow and 
most of the farm labor was performed by hand, a man by his 
own efforts could crop only a very few acres. To-day with the 
aid of the many efficient machines one can farm a large acreage, 
which means increased crops. This gives more food for the 
nation and releases men for other kinds of work. There are 

443 



444 Effective Farming 

machines for practically every major kind of farm work and 
they are not very expensive considering the materials that enter 
into their construction. Farm machines not only save time, 
but often make possible the saving of a crop that by reason of 
rain or some other weather condition would be lost. How 
extensively machinery may be used on any farm will depend 
largely on size of farm, kind of product, and the labor supply. 
With the high price of labor on American farms, and the diffi- 
culty of securing it, machinery and labor-saving implements 
are much employed ; yet it is easily possible to invest too much 
money in machinery in proportion to the available capital. 
The American ingenuity in farm machinery is well known, 
and is a source of pride. 

221. Lack of care of farm machinery. — In the United States 
a very unfortunate condition found is the absolute lack of 
care which the farm machinery receives on many farms. This 
lack of care is seen in (1) improper handling of the machines 
while in use and (2) improper care while not in use. It too 
often happens that the operator of a machine will take it to 
the field for use when it is out of adjustment or when certain 
bolts and screws are out of place ; this soon results in permanent 
injury and if continued the farmer finds it necessary to purchase 
a new machine. The operator should understand the working 
parts of the machine and be able to adjust them properly 
before using. Whenever a screw or bolt becomes loose, it should 
be tightened, the bearings should be kept well oiled, and all 
parts should work smoothly. 

A properly equipped shop on the farm where minor repairs 
can be made is useful in keeping machinery in good condition. 
The shop need not be a separate building ; it may be a part of 
a storage shed or a wagon house. It should not, however, be 
part of the barn, because of danger of fire from the forge. 

Farm machinery should be protected from the weather. 
Exposure to weather for a season will do more harm to a ma- 
chine than the wear caused by its use during the season. 



Farm Machinery 



445 



On American farms the average life of a grain-binder, a machine 
costing about $125, is about five years. However, experience 
has shown that with proper care a binder will give efficient serv- 
ice for at least fifteen years. This same condition holds true 
with most farm implements. 

A shed in which machinery can be stored should, like a shop, 
be a part of the equipment of every farm. It is poor policy 
to buy good machinery and convert it into worthless junk in 
a few years, because of the lack of a storage place. 

222. Plows. — The most important implement on the farm 
is the plow, for by its use the soil is turned over and pulverized 
and made ready for forming the proper bed in which the 




— -^ 



Fig. 194. — Bottom view of a walking plow. 1, share; 2, mold board 
3, landside ; 4, frog ; 5, brace ; 6, beam ; 7, clevis ; 8, handle. 



seed is to be planted. The first plows were crooked sticks 
that merely scratched the surface of the land. The next im- 
provement was an implement that would turn the top soil 
over and expose it to the weather. This was followed by the 
modern plow that not only turns over the furrow-slice, but in 
the operation causes a shearing motion between the soil par- 
ticles which aids in pulverizing the soil. This shearing action 
does much to improve the structure of the soil. The chief 
kinds of plows are walking plows, sulky plows, gang plows, 
disc plows, and subsoil plows. 

Walking plows. — The so-called walking plows are usually 
drawn by one or two horses. They can be obtained in a 
number of different types, depending on the purpose for which 



446 



Effective Farming 




Farm Machinery 



447 











\'.< 



'/•■^i?' 



'>.*i' 



^ 



448 Effective Farming 

they are to be used. More walking plows are found on Ameri- 
can farms than any of the other types. Fig. 194 shows the 
parts of a walking plow. These should be learned by every 
one who ever expects to operate a plow. 

Sulky plows. — Sulky plows are those attached to a frame set 
on wheels. The frame serves to regulate the depth of plowing. 
Usually there is a seat on the frame where the operator can ride. 
The implement shown in Fig. 195 is termed a reversible sulky 
plow. It is provided with two plow bottoms, right-hand and 
left-hand. When plowing back and forth across a field, one 
of these plow bottoms is used for a trip one way and at the end 




Fig. 197. — Disc plow. 

of the furrow the implement is turned and the other plow bot- 
tom used for a trip the other way of the field. 

Gang plows. — Plows made to turn two or more furrows at 
once are known as gang plows (Fig. 196). They are moved 
by horses or tractors and are very efficient machines for rapid 
plowing. In Fig. 196 is pictured a ten-bottom gang plow pro- 
pelled by a tractor and followed by a corrugated roller. An 
outfit like this will turn over much land in a day. 

Disc plows. — A rotating disc is used instead of a curved 
moldboard in the disc plows (Fig. 197). These implements 
are especially useful in heavy soils and are popular in many 
localities. 



Farm Machinery 



449 



Subsoil plows. — What are known as subsoil plows (Fig. 
198) are employed to follow in the furrow made by a regular 
plow for the purpose of loosening the soil below the plow depth. 




Fig. 198. — Subsoil plow. 



They do not turn a furrow. In regions where hard-pan is 
found just below plow depth, subsoil plows are very efficient 
for increasing the depth of soil available for the roots. 




Fig. 199. — Disc harrow. 

223. Harrows. — For the purpose of following the plow and 

breaking up the clods and smoothing the surface soil, harrows 

are used. Disc, spring-tooth, spike-tooth, and blade harrows 

or Acme, are the common types. In choosing a harrow one 

2g 



450 



Effective Farming 




Cutaway disc harrow. 



must be governed largely by the character of work to be done 
and the type of soil on the farm. 

Disc harrows. — As shown in Fig. 199, disc harrows are a 
series of round sharp discs mounted on a frame. When the 
harrow is propelled, these discs revolve and cut into the soil. 
They can be adjusted to cut at an angle or straight ahead. The 




Fig. 201. — Spring-tooth harrow. 



Farm Machinery 



451 



type illustrated in Fig. 200 is known as a spading or cutaway 
harrow. A harrow of this type gives a spading action which is 
efficient in cutting up clods and smoothing the soil and is espe- 
cially useful on heavy soils. 

Spring-tooth harrows. — • In the spring-tooth harrows (Fig. 
201) a series of flat, curved blades is fitted on a frame. The 
depth at which the blades enter the ground can be regulated 
by means of the levers. These harrows are especially efficient 
on stony ground or on soil that becomes compacted easily. 




Fig. 202. — Spike-tooth harrow. 



Spike-tooth harrows. — A much used type of harrow is 
the spike-tooth (Fig. 202). These harrows consist of a series 
of iron teeth fitted into a frame in such a way that they can be 
adjusted to stand in a vertical position or be slanted either 
forward or backward. They are useful for stirring and smooth- 
ing the soil. 

Blade harrows. — The Acme, or blade harrow, which is shown 
in Fig. 203, consists of a row of blades that slice and turn the 
soil. This harrow pulverizes and smoothes the soil, espe- 



452 



Effective Farming 



cially when it is mellow and in good tilth ; it is a very good type 
for the last harrowing preparatory to planting the seed. 

224. Cultivators. — Crops like corn, cotton, and potatoes 
are tilled between the rows by cultivators, machines equipped 




Fig. 203. — " Acme " harrow. 

with small blades, shovels, or discs. Two types are on the 

market — one-horse cultivators and straddle-row cultivators. 

One-horse cultivators. — In the one-horse type of cultivator 

(Fig. 204) the implement is propelled between the rows to 

be cultivated. This 
sort is generally used 
for cultivating small 
areas or when the 
corn or other crop 
has become too tall 
for the straddle-row 
type. 

Straddle-row culti- 
vators. — Both one- 
row (Fig. 205) and two-row (Fig. 206) straddle-row cultivators 
are manufactured. On the former the shovels or discs pass on 
both sides of a row, while in the latter two rows are cultivated 




Fig. 204. — One-horse cultivator. 



Farm Machinery 



453 







Fi«. 205. — One-row straddle cultivator. 




Fig. 206. — Two-row straddle cultivator. 



454 



Effective Farming 




at a time. With this implement, a man with three horses can 
cultivate twice as much ground in a given time as one man 
and two horses can with a single-row machine. 

225. Weeders. — The implements known as weeders, one 
type of which is shown in Fig. 207, are provided with slender, 

flexible teeth and are 
used chiefly for culti- 
vating the soil before 
the plants are above 
the ground and for a 
few days thereafter. 
They are effective in 
controlling weeds, 
which at this period 
of growth are small 
and easily killed. 

226. Planting im- 
plements. — Among 
the more common 
planting implements are broadcast seeders, grain drills, corn- 
and cotton-planters, potato-planters, and transplanters. 

Broadcast seeders. — The broadcast seeders are employed 
chiefly for planting grass seed and, to a less extent, small grains. 
The knapsack seeder is the simplest form. A bag with the 
bottom opening into the distributing mechanism holds the seed. 
The bag is held in place by a strap over the operator's shoulder. 
The wheelbarrow seeder is essentially a long narrow box mounted 
on a frame and wheel and provided with handles like those of 
a wheelbarrow. In the bottom of the box are openings that 
are closed and opened by means of a vibrating rod that engages 
cogs attached to the side of the wheel when the seeder is pushed 
across the ground. The horse broadcast seeder, a third type, 
has much the appearance of a grain drill without the tubes that 
convey the grain to the ground. The grain is held in a long 
hopper box from which it is distributed through holes that are 



Fig. 207. — Weeder. 



Farm Machinery 455 

opened and closed by the mechanism of the implement. The 
endgate seeder is a metal hopper that is attached to the end- 
gate of a wagon. The seed is placed in the hopper and is dis- 
tributed by means of a mechanism supplied with power from a 
sprocket attached to the wheel of the wagon. 

Grain drills. — These are the implements generally employed 
for planting the cereal crops (Fig. 48). There are several 
types manufactured, but they all consist essentially of the 
wheels, the supporting frame, the hopper, the feeding mechan- 
ism, the tubes that convey the grain to the ground, the furrow 
openers, and the chains or wheels that cover the grain. In 
some localities drills are provided with fertilizer and grass-seed 
attachments. 

Corn- and cotton-planters. — These machines are of two types 
— hand planters and horse-drawn planters. The former are 




Fig. 208. — One-horse corn-planter. 

used for corn and are employed where only small areas are planted 
or for replanting missing hills. The horse-drawn planters are 
either two-horse or one-horse. The two-horse planter drops 
the corn in hills or in drills at certain regular distances apart 
and plants two rows at a time (Fig. 39) . The one-horse planter 



456 Effective Farming 

(Fig. 208) plants one row at a time. Most one-horse planters 
can be adjusted to plant either corn or cotton. 

In the bottom of the seed-boxes are revolving plates with 
holes or notches in them. As the plate revolves, the grain, 
or several grains, if planting in hills, drops into these holes or 
notches and is carried down into the soil. 

Potato-planters. — These are very useful implements, a much- 
used type of which is shown in Fig. 88. The planters open 
a furrow, drop either whole or cut pieces at regular intervals, 
and cover the furrow with soil. Most potato-planters are 
equipped with fertilizer attachments. 

Transplanters. — These implements (Fig. 93) are used ex- 
tensively for the transplanting of seedlings of sweet potatoes, 
tobacco, celery, cabbage, and the like. They are provided 
with a tank or barrel for carrying water, a furrow opener, and 
a covering device. Two boys usually ride on the implement 
and hold the plants in an upright position until the soil is pressed 
around them. Water from the tank or barrel wets the soil 
around the plants as they are set. 

227. Hay-harvesting machinery. — The usual hay-harvest- 
ing machines are mowers, rakes, tedders, loaders, stackers, 
harpoon forks, and slings. 

Mowers. — On a mower (Fig. 56) there is a cutting bar that 
is protected with a series of fingers called guards. The cutter- 
bar is a set of triangular plates riveted to a bar of steel that 
moves back and forth over the guards. From his position 
on the seat the operator can raise and lower the cutter-bar to 
cut the grass at different heights. Mowers are either one- 
horse or two-horse ; in the former type, they cut swaths three 
to three and one-half feet wide ; the latter, from four and one- 
half to seven feet wide. 

Rakes. — There are three general types of hay-rakes — 
sulky, side delivery, and sweep rakes (Fig. 60). Sulky rakes 
have a row of teeth that gather the hay from the swath ; when 
a large enough quantity has been collected, it is dumped into 



Farm Machinery 457 

a windrow. Side-delivery rakes collect the hay and push it 
to one side in a continuous windrow by means of a system of 
moving forks. Sweep rakes have a series of long wooden fin- 
gers that are dragged along the ground. The implement is 
hitched between two horses that are kept some distance apart. 
When a load has been secured, the team is driven to a point 
where the hay is to be stacked. 

Tedders. — Tedders are used for shaking up hay that has be- 
come wet or when there is a large yield that will not cure prop- 
erly without being turned. They have a number of forks that 
turn the hay over as the implement is drawn over the ground. 

Hay-loaders. — A labor-saving implement that is much 
used in handling hay is the loader (Fig. 59). One of these 
machines is attached to the rear of a hayrack and as the wagon 
is moved forward the hay is collected by a Series of fingers 
and conveyed to the back end of the rack from which it is 
distributed on the load by hand. 

Stackers. — There are several types of stackers in use. A com- 
mon form is shown in Fig. 61. This equipment is almost indis- 
pensable where large quantities of hay are stacked each year. 

Harpoon forks and slings. — For getting the hay into the 
barn or shed, harpoon forks or slings are used. These appli- 
ances are attached to the hay on a load, and by means of a rope 
and pulley the fork or shng with the hay holding to it is elevated 
into the barn and slid along a track to the point where it is to 
be deposited. 

228. Small-grain, corn, and potato harvesters. — The im- 
plements used for harvesting small grains, corn, and potatoes 
have been described in the chapters deahng with these crops 
and need not be further explained. 

229. Threshing machines. — In the threshing machine, 
(Fig. 52) the grain in the bundle is conveyed to a cylinder where 
it is removed from the head in passing between the cylinder 
and a concave. The grain sifts down through screens to an 
auger that delivers it from the machine. In its passage through 



458 



Effective Farming 



the screens, dust and chaff are blown away by an air blast 
from a fan. The straw passes over racks to the stacker. 

230. Farm tractors. — A statement about farm machinery 
would be incomplete without mention of the modern farm trac- 
tor. In recent years, these machines have • been much per- 
fected and are now used on many farms. For the most part 
they are operated by gas engines, some form of petroleum being 
the fuel employed. Many of them burn kerosene and gasolene 
mixed; others burn only gasolene. Tractors can be secured 
in a variety of sizes, from those that can pull, one or two plows 
to those capable of pulling a dozen or more (Fig. 196). The 




Fig. 209. — A tractor pulling six seeders. 

machines have many uses. In tillage work, they often haul 
plows and harrows at one operation. For planting, they can 
be arranged to haul a number of seeders (Fig. 209). For 
harvesting, they can be attached to a hay-loader (Fig. 59) or to 
several mowers (Fig. 56), or to binders (Fig. 49), and a wide 
swath can then be handled in one trip across the field. They 
are useful not only for pulling loads, but the engines can also 
be used to pump water, run the thresher (Fig. 210), saw wood, 
and the like. Tractors are made in two general styles, those 
with high wheels and those with a creeping tread. The latter 
are especially useful on muck ground. In price the tractors 
vary from a few hundred dollars to about $2500, the price 
being governed by the size and power of the machine. 



Farm Machinery 



459 




460 Effective Farming 

QUESTIONS 

1. In what ways can farm machinery be injured when in use? 

2. Why should farm machinery when not in use be protected from 
the weather? 

3. How can the life of grain binders on farms be trebled ? 

4. Why should a storage shed for machinery be part of the im- 
provements of every farm ? 

5. Discuss the different types of harrows and tell for what particu- 
lar use each is adapted. 

6. For what are weeders used? 

7. Name and describe the uses of three kinds of planting imple- 
ments. 

8. For what are hay tedders used? 

9. State something of the importance of farm tractors, 
10. What type of tractor is best for muck lands? 

EXERCISES 

1. Machinery on farms. — Visit several nearby farms, list the farm 
machinery on each place, and compute the cost of new machines of the 
same type. Find what percentage of the value of each farm a full 
set of new machinery would be. 

2. Setting up of machinery. — Visit a dealer and have him set up 
several machines — a sulky plow, a mower, and a grain binder, for 
example. Study the different parts and determine their uses. Con- 
sult the printed instruction books for setting up machinery furnished 
by the manufacturer. These can be obtained from" the dealers. 

Write to the Advertising Department of the International Har- 
vester Co., Chicago, for booklets of instructions dealing with the 
setting up and care of farm implements, including gas engines. Study 
these carefully. 

REFERENCES 
Bailey, L. H., Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I, pp. 202-231. 

The Macmillan Co. 
Davidson, J. B., and Chase, L. W., Far?n Machinery and Farm Motors. 

Orange Judd Co. 
Ekblaw, K. J. T., Farm Structures. The Macmillan Co. 
Davidson, J. B., Agricultural Engineering, Webb Publishing Co. 
Wirt, F. A., Farm Machinery Manual, Wiley and Sons. 
Hirshfeld, C. F., and Ulbrecht, T. C, Gas Engines for the Farm. Wiley 

and Sons. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

FARM MANAGEMENT 

The scope of farm management. 

Farming as an occupation. 

Choice of a region for farming. 

Choice of the type of farming. 

Choice of the farm. 

Farm tenancy. 

Laying out the fields. 

Kinds of farm equipment. 

Farm labor. 

Planning a cropping system. 

Farm accounts. 

Farm records. 

The marketing of farm products. 

Farming is a business as well as an occupation. The or- 
ganization and management of it are subjects of first im- 
portance. It is not enough merely to be skillful in the raising 
of crops and animals. One must see that the income is greater 
than the outgo, and that the business proceeds with regularity. 
The farmer should know which of his operations and which of 
his products pay best. He should be able to eliminate the 
unprofitable activities, considering at the same time the ne- 
cessity of maintaining a certain volume of business in order 
that he may retain labor and keep his capital moving. Market 
conditions must be understood. The good modern farmer is 
able to analyze his business, understanding the relationships 
between all the parts. 

231. The scope of farm management. — This subject in- 
cludes studies of such problems as the occupation of farming, 

461 



462 Effective Farming 

the choice of a region, the choice of the farm, decision on the 
type of operation, the form of tenure (if the farm is rented), 
the laying out of the fields, equipment, labor, cropping systems, 
accounts, records, and the marketing of products. Obviously 
not all of these subjects can be treated extensively in a one- 
volume book on general agriculture and in the following pages 
only brief statements of the various phases are given, but as 
an aid to those who desire to study the subject more extensively 
a full list of references is included. 

232. Farming as an occupation. — There are many advan- 
tages as well as disadvantages in farming as an occupation. 
It is a stable business, not subject to serious disturbances of 
the financial world, it is healthful, independent, and when 
rightly conducted, fairly remunerative. On the other hand, 
it is more dependent on climatic and weather conditions than 
is any other occupation, and the average profits in farming 
are not large as compared with those of most other businesses. 

233. Choice of a region for farming. — A prospective pur- 
chaser of a farm should consider carefully such factors as the 
character of the soil, the transportation faciUties, the health- 
fulness of the region, the kind and quality of the farm labor 
available, the social and educational conditions, the kind of 
roads, the average value of farm lands, and the average crop 
yields for the important crops grown during a period of years. 

234. Choice of the type of farming. — In selecting the kind 
of farming, one should be governed by the profitableness of the 
different types best suited to the region. His personal prefer- 
ence should be followed also, since one usually does well what 
he enjoys doing. 

235. Choice of the farm. — With the region and the type of 
farming decided on, the next problem is the selection of the 
individual farm. Chief questions here involved are. How 
fertile is the soil? Is the topography of the farm desirable 
for the type of farming selected? Are the improvements 
satisfactory? Are the buildings located advantageously? 



Farm Management 463 

Are the fields well arranged and, if not, can they be arranged 
profitably? What are the distances to market, shipping sta- 
tion, school, and church ? What kind of roads are those which 
must be traveled most frequently? 

236. Farm tenancy. — Share tenancy and cash tenancy are 
both used in renting farms. The first is often preferred by 
renters, because it carries less risk. However, statistics show 
that cash tenancy is increasing in the United States. Econo- 
mists usually consider it to be the better form. The character 
of contract between landlord and tenant is a serious problem 
to both. The proportion that each shall have will vary with 
the type of farming, the fertility of the soil, and the region 
where the farm is located. 

237. Laying out the fields. — The fields should, as far as 
possible, be of the same size, for approximately the same area 
can then be devoted to a given crop each year. Often farms 
are cut up into small irregular-shaped fields. The problem 
of the farmer then is to arrange the fields by moving division 
lines, enlarging some, and reducing others. If possible the 
fields should be laid out in rectangles. All roads and lanes 
to and from the fields should follow this boundary. Perma- 
nent lanes should connect the pastures and stable yards so 
that the live-stock will travel to and from the pastures with- 
out a driver. Much time can be saved each year by this 
arrangement. 

238. Kinds of farm equipment. — Real estate and personal 
property are included in farm equipment. Real estate consists 
of land, buildings, fences, drainage, irrigation, and water-supply 
systems. Personal property includes live-stock, implements 
and machinery, feed, seed, fertilizers, products for sale, fuel, 
and the like. As far as land is concerned, investigations have 
shown that large farms usually give a greater labor income 
than small farms. By labor income is meant the money a 
farmer has left after paying all the running expenses of the 
farm and the interest on the investment. 



464 Effective Farming 

The Cornell Experiment Station has published in Bulletin 
295 some very interesting figures secured from an agricultural 
survey made in the state. Table XVI gives the results found 
as to size of farm and labor income : 

TABLE XVI 

Size of Farm and Labor Income 

Acres Labor Income in Dollars 

30 or less . , 168 

31-60 254 

61-100 373 

101-150 436 

151-200 635 

over 200 947 

239. Farm labor. — Both man and horse labor are included 
in this term. Regarding the efficiency of man labor, a ver^^ 
interesting condition was found by the Cornell Station in the 
survey referred to above. The results given in Table XVII 
show that on small farms man's labor is not utilized to the 
best advantage : 

TABLE XVII 

Size of Farm and Efficiency of Man Labor 

Acres Farmed 
Acres in Farm with $100 Worth 

of Man Labor 

30 or less 5 

31-60 12 

61-100 18 

101-150 22 

151-200 26 

over 200 30 

Horse labor on farms varies from six to sixteen cents an hour. 
Obviously the more a horse is used, the less he costs his owner 
for each hour. The term horse hour is used to indicate the 
work of a horse in one hour. Table XVIII shows the relation 
of the size of farms to the efficiency of horse labor as found in 
New York State : 



Farm Management 465 

TABLE XVIII 
Size of Farm and Efficiency of Horse Labor 

.Acres in Farm Acres per Horse 

30 or less 15 

31-60 21 

61-100 30 

101-150 . 37 

151-200 41 

over 200 49 

240. Planning a cropping system. — An individual problem 
for each farm is the planning of the cropping system. It in- 
volves a knowledge of the crops that are grown in the region, 
which ones do best in the different rotations, the money returns 
that may be expected from each, the effects of the different 
crops on the soil, and other similar factors. 

241. Farm accounts. — In conducting a farm business, it 
is necessary to know whether or not the business is profitable, 
how much is made or lost annually on each crop or class of 
live-stock, and how to improve the methods so as to make 
more money. These facts a farmer can know only by keeping 
a set of books. The keeping of farm accounts is not as difficult 
as it may seem, nor does it necessarily involve an outlay of 
much time. One of the best and simplest systems of farm 
accounts has been developed by G. F. Warren, the principles 
of which are published in his book, Farm Management. Also, 
in Farmers' Bulletin 572 C. E. Ladd describes this system after 
having given it a thorough trial for three years with a number 
of farmers working under his supervision. 

The time to keep a set of books by this system averages 
about five minutes daily and a number of hours at the end of 
the year to close the set of books. No bookkeeping knowl- 
edge is necessary to take care of a set of books by this 
method. In fact Ladd found that in some instances a knowl- 
edge of bookkeeping proved to be detrimental, since trained 
bookkeepers have a tendency to insert technicalities and com^ 
2h 



466 Effective Farming ' 

plex entries that are out of place in such a system of farm 
accounts. 

Farmers' Bulletin 782, The Use of a Diary for Farm Ac- 
counts, can be utilized in making a simple set of books. This 
method has proved satisfactory to many farmers. Farmers' 
Bulletin 511, Far7n Bookkeeping, is another excellent publication 
that is of value in working up a set of farm accounts. 

242. Farm records. — Differing somewhat from farm ac- 
counts, farm records include such items as the yearly records 
of production of the dairy herd, breeding records of all classes 
of Hve-stock, feeding records, lists of feeds and other supplies, 
weather records, seeding dates, and reports of the last killing 
frosts in spring and first kilHng frost in the fall. The keeping 
of such records requires but little time and this time is well 
spent. 

243. The marketing of farm products. — A detail of farm 
management that should receive more attention from the 
average American farmer is the marketing of his products. 
As a rule farmers in this country have produced their products 
better than they have sold them. Selling goods of any kind 
requires business ability. Much has been said about the 
proper grading and packing of produce, but one has only to 
visit almost any market where produce is sold to find unsorted 
and unattractive potatoes and apples side by side with those 
packed and sorted properly. This means that all farmers 
have not learned that it pays to put up these products correctly. 

Another detail that must be considered in marketing is whether 
or not crops that shrink in storage, like corn and potatoes, 
would better be sold in the fall or spring. The Iowa Station 
found in tests that ran for eight years that the shrinkage on 
corn was : Dec. 1, 5.2 per cent ; Jan. 1, 6.9 per cent ; Feb. 1, 7.5 
per cent ; March 1, 7.8 per cent ; April 1, 9.7 per cent ; May 1, 
12.8 per cent; June 1, 14.7 per cent; July 1, 16.3 per- cent ; 
August 1, 17.3 per cent; September 1, 17.8 per cent; October 
1, 18.2 per cent. 



Farm Management 467 

Potatoes on the average will shrink 6 per cent from October 
to February and 10 per cent from October to May. These 
figures are useful as guides in determining whether a farmer 
should sell the products in the fall or in the spring, considering 
the average prices received. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by the term farm management? 

2. State some of the advantages and the disadvantages of farming 
as a business. 

3. In selecting a region for farming what factors should be con- 
sidered ? 

4. Why should the different fields of a farm be of nearly the same 
size? 

5. What is the advantage of having a permanent lane connect the 
pasture and the stable yard? 

6. Why should a farmer keep a set of account books ? 

7. What publications can a person secure free that will aid him in 
making up a system of farm accounts for his own farm? 

8. What are farm records and how do they differ from accounts ? 

9. Why should farm products be graded and packed carefully? 
10. How much do potatoes usually shrink from October to Febru- 



ary.'' 



EXERCISES 



1. Farm inventory. — Make a farm inventory of some farm in your 
vicinity using as a guide the inventory given herewith which is from 
Farmers' Bulletin 511. 

2. Choice of a farm. — Choose some farm in the neighborhood as 
one you intend to purchase and answer the questions as given in para- 
graph 235. 

3. Farm accounts. — Let each pupil, as far as practicable, adopt 
either Farmers' Bulletin 572 or 782, and work up a set of farm accounts 
for his father's or a neighbor's farm. 

4. Lay-out of a farm. — Draw a map of a farm that has irregular- 
shaped fields. Redraw, with fields arranged so that they are rectangular 
and nearly of the same size. 

5. Cropping system of a farm. — Plan a cropping system of a farm 
taking into consideration the factors listed in paragraph 240. 



468 



Effective Farming 



Sample Farm Inventory : Farm of 



Property 


April 1, 1911 


April 1, 1912 


No. 


Rate 


Valuation 


No. 


Rate 

$50.00 

15.00 
20.00 

21.00 
3.00 

0.60 
1.00 
3.00 

41.00 
25.00 


Valuation 


REAL ESTATE 

Farm of 180 acres (155 
tillable), including 
buildings (dwelling 
$1,600, barns $1,800, 
other buildings $600), 
fences, and other im- 
improvements . . . 


24 

1 
6 
4 

2 

8 

1 
1 

1 

1 

160 
5 

2 

1 
2 
2 

1 
1 


$50.00 

14.00 
28.00 

22.00 
4.00 

0.60 
1.00 
3.00 

45.00 
28.00 


$1,200.00 

50.00 

84.00 

112.00 


$13,500.00 


26 

1 
8 
6 

2 
6 

1 

1 

1 
1 

125 
4 
3 

1 
2 
2 

1 
1 


$1,300.00 
45.00 
120.00 
120.00 


$13,500.00 


LIVE-STOCK 

Dairy cattle : 
Cows, dry and in milk 

Bull 

Calves 

Two-year-olds . . . 


1,446.00 
76.00 

1,100.00 
107.00 




Total value of dairy 

cattle 

Hogs: 
Brood sows .... 
Pigs 


44.00 
32.00 


42.00 
18.00 


1,585.00 


Total value of hogs 

Horses : 

Horse, Jim, 7 years old 

Team, Nell and Bess, 5 

and 6 years old . . 

Team, Jack and Prince, 

6 and 7 years old . . 

Colt, 1 year old . . 


200.00 

425.00 

400.00 
75.00 


180.00 

425.00 

400.00 
145.00 


60.00 


Total value of horses 
Poultry : 

Hens 

Roosters 

Turkeys 


96.00 
5.00 
6.00 


75.00 
4.00 
9.00 


1,150.00 


Total value of poultry 


90.00 
90.00 
56.00 
35.00 
20.00 


82.00 
82.00 
50.00 
30.00 
19.00 


88.00 


Total value of live- 
stock 


2,729.00 


2,883.00 


MACHINERY AND TOOLS 

Grain binder .... 

Sulky plows .... 

Disc harrow . . . 

Mower 

Hay rake 

(List all items of farm 
machines, wagons 
harness, and small 
tools.) 


475.00 




Total investment in 
machinery and tools 
(not all listed here) 


— 


— 


461.00 









Farm Management 



469 



Sample Farm Inventory {Continued) 



Property 


April 1, 1911 


April 1, 1912 


No. 


Rate 


Valuation 


No. 


Rate 


Valuation 


FEED AND SUPPLIES 

Farm products : 
Corn . . . bushels 
Oats ... do 
Potatoes . . do 
Hay, timothy tons 
Hay, mixed do 
Silage ... do 
Bran ... do 
Mixed feed . do 
Seed oats . . do 
Seed potatoes do 
Seed corn . do 
Cement . . sacks 
Twine . . . pounds 


80 

200 

40 

10 

5 
40 

0^ 

1 
30 
45 

3 

4 
20 

2 
40 


$.60 

.42 

.75 

16.00 

12.00 

4.00 

.80 
.80 
2.00 
.50 
.10 

13.00 
..50 


$48.00 

84.00 

30.00 

160.00 

60.00 

160.00 

15.00 

31.00 

24.00 

36.00 

6.00 

2.00 

2.00 


658.00 


125 
90 
80 
20 
4 
40 

2h 
35 
50 

3 

10 


$.60 

.50 

.60 

15.00 

12.00 

4.00 

30.00 

.80 

1.00 

2.00 

.10 


$75.00 
45.00 
48.00 

300.00 
48.00 

160.00 

75.00 

28.00 

50.00 

6.00 

1.00 




Total value of feed 
and supplies . . . 


26.00 
20.00 


210.00 
1,938.00 


836.00 


BILLS RECEIVABLE 

J. A. Brown, hay tons 
R. S. Jones, 
potatoes . . bushels 


46.00 




Total 


90.00 
580.00 




CASH 

On hand 

In bank 


670.00 




Total 


13,500.00 

2,729.00 

475.00 

658.00 

46.00 

670.00 


13,500.00 

2,883.00 

461.00 

836.00 

2,148.00 


2,148.00 


BILLS PAYABLE 

Farm mortgage . . 


2,000.00 


1,500.00 








SUMMARY 

Real estate .... 
Live-stock .... 
Machinery and tools . 
Feed and supplies . . 
Bills receivable . . . 
Cash on hand and in 
bank 


18,078.00 
2,000.00 






Total investment . 
Bills payable . . . 


— 


- 


19,828.00 
1,500.00 


Net worth . . . 

Increase in inven- 
tory, $2,250. 


16,078.00 


18,328.00 



470 Effective Farming 



REFERENCES 

Warren, G. F., Farm Management. The Macmillan Co. 

Warren, G. F., and Livermore, K. C, Laboratory Exercises in Farm, 

Management. The Macmillan Co. 
Boss, Andrew, Farm, Management. Lyons and Carnahan. 
Bexell, J. A., and Nichols, F. G., Principles of Bookkeeping and Farm 

Accounts. American Book Co. 
Brace and Mayne, Farm Work Shop. American Book Co. 
Farmers' Bulletin 661, A Method of Analyzing the Farm Business. 
Farmers' Bulletin 572, A System of Farm Cost Accounting. 
Farmers' Bulletin 782, Use of a Diary for Farm Accounts. 
Farmers' Bulletin 551, Farm Bookkeeping. 
Farmers' Bulletin 746, The Farmer's Income. 

Farmers' Bulletin 635, What the Farm Contributes Directly to the Farm- 
er's Living. 
Farmers' Bulletin 614, A Corn-Belt Farming System Which Saves 

Harvest Labor by Hogging Down Crops. 
Farmers' Bulletin 719, An Economic Study of the Farm Tractor in the 

Corn Belt. 
Farmers' Bulletin 312, A Successful Southern Hay Farm. 
Farmers' Bulletin 326, Building up a Run-down Cotton Plantation. 
Farmers' Bulletin 370, Replanning a Farm for Profit. 
Farmers' Bulletin 432, Hoiv a City Family Managed a Farm. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 341, Far^n Management Practice 

of Chester County, Pa. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 41, A Farm-Management- Survey of 

Three Representative Areas in Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Yearbook, Separate 715, Farm Tenantry 

in the United States. 



APPENDIX 

DIRECTORY OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

Executive and administrative head of the department. 
Assistant Secretaries of Agriculture. 

Assist in directing the work of the department. In the absence 
of the Secretary one becomes Acting Secretary. 
Solicitor. 

Is legal adviser to the Secretary and the heads of the several 
branches of the department, conducts its legal* work, and represents 
it in all legal matters. 
Office of Farm Management. 

Studies the details of farm practice from a business standpoint, 
with a view to determining the most efficient methods of operation. 
Weather Bureau. 

Conducts meteorological investigations ; issues weather maps ; 
handles all work relating to climate, storm warnings, frost warnings, 
etc. 
Forest Service. 

Administers the national forests and develops use of their resources ; 
directs all research work relating to forestry and forest utilization. 
Bureau of Animal Industry. 

Studies and gives information regarding live-stock ; conducts the 
meat-inspection and quarantine work. 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 

Investigates problems relating to plants and plant industries. 
Bureau of Chemistry. 

Enforces the Food and Drugs Act ; investigates questions of agri- 
cultural chemistry. 
Bureau of Soils. 

Surveys and maps the soils and investigates the fertiHzer resources 
of the United States. 
Bureau of Entomology. 

Studies insects in their relation to agriculture. 

471 



472 Appendix 

Bureau of Biological Survey. 

Studies wild birds and animals, their distribution, habits, and rela- 
tions to agriculture ; administers the Federal bird and game reserva- 
tions and the Federal laws protecting game and regulating the im- 
portation of birds and animals. Controls noxious mammals and 
experiments in fur farming. 
Bureau of Crop Estimates. 

Collects crop statistics ; gathers and collates general agricultural 
statistics ; issues crop reports and forecasts. 
Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering. 

Studies and supplies information regarding road making, road 
management, road maintenance, farm irrigation, farm drainage, and 
rural engineering and architecture. 
States Relations Service. 

Supervises the use of Federal funds for agricultural experiment 
stations and agricultural extension work ; investigates agricultural 
education, and food, dietetics, clothing, and household equipment 
and management. " 
Office of Markets and Rural Organizations. 

Investigates problems pertaining to marketing and distribution 
of farm products and organizing rural communities for marketing, 
rural credit, and other purposes. Enforces Cotton-Futures Act. 
Federal Horticultural Board. 

Assists in the enforcement of the Plant Quarantine Act of August 
20, 1912. 
Insecticide and Fungicide Board. 

Assists in the enforcement of the Insecticide Act of 1910. 

ADDRESSES OF THE STATE EXPERIMENT STATIONS 

Alabama — Agricultural College and Storrs 

College of Agriculture and Ex- Experiment Station — Storrs. 

periment Station, Auburn. Delaware — Newark. 

Canebrake Station, Uniontown. Florida — Gainesville. 

Tuskegee Station, Tuskegee. Georgia — Experiment. 

Alaska — Sitka. Hawaii — 

Arizona — Tucson. Federal Station — Honolulu. 

Arkansas — Fayetteville. Sugar Planters' Station — Hon- 

California — Berkeley. olulu. 

Colorado — Fort Collins. Idaho — Moscow. 

Connecticut — Illinois — Urbana. 

State Station, New Haven. Indiana — Lafayette. 



Appendix 



473 



Iowa — Ames. 
Kansas — Manhattan. 
Kentucky — Lexington. 
Louisiana — Baton Rouge. 
Maine — Orono. 
Maryland — College Park. 
Massachusetts — Amherst. 
Michigan — East Lansing. 
Minnesota — St. Anthony Park, 

St. Paul. 
Mississippi — Agricultural Col- 
lege. 
Missouri — 

College Station — Columbia. 

Fruit Station — Mountain 
Grove. 
Montana — Bozeman. 
Nebraska — Lincoln. 
Nevada — Reno. 
New Hampshire — Durham. 
New Jersey — New Brunswick. 
New Mexico — Agricultural Col- 
lege. 
New York — 

State Station — Geneva. 

College of Agriculture and 

Cornell Experiment Station — 
Ithaca. 



North Carolina — 

College Station — West Ra- 
leigh. 

State Station — Raleigh. 
North Dakota — Agricultural 

College. 
Ohio — 

Experiment Station — Wooster. 

College of Agriculture — Co- 
lumbus. 
Oklahoma — Stillwater. 
Oregon — Corvallis. 
Pennsylvania — State College. 
Porto Rico — Mayaguez. 
Rhode Island — Kingston. 
South Carolina — Clsmson Col- 
lege. 
South Dakota — Brookings. 
Tennessee — Knoxville. 
Texas — College Station. 
Utah — Logan. 
Vermont — Burlington. 
Virginia — Blacksburg. 
Washington — Pullman. 
West Virginia — Morgantown. 
Wisconsin — Madison. 
Wyoming — Laramie. 



THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL- 
TURE i 

A new classification of the publications of the Department of Agri- 
culture was adopted July 1, 1913, as follows : 
Department Bulletins : 

• The popular matter heretofore published in the bulletins and circu- 
lars of the various Bureaus, Divisions, and Offices is now published in 
the Departmental series of bulletins, which contain a popular discussion 
of the investigations of the Department. A sub-series of these bulle- 

1 The author is indebted to Mr. Joseph A. Arnold, Editor and Chief, 
Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture, for 
the statements that follow. 



474 Appendix 

tins, known as Professional Papers, is issued, which contain discussions 
of the work of a professional or semi-professional nature, dealing with 
crops, animals, and similar matter, which, though sometimes handled 
in a popular way, may be presented in a professional or technical form. 
These are generally of octavo size, illustrated by plates or text figures 
or both, and are generally printed without cover, title page, table of 
contents, or index, and are issued in editions of 2500 to several thousand, 
according to the subject, the nature of the demand, and the need for 
wide distribution of the information. Copies of these bulletins are 
distributed free to all who apply for them, as long as the supply lasts. 
When no copies are available, applicants are referred to the Superin- 
tendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, who has them for 
sale at a nominal price, in accordance with the provisions of law. 
Serial Publications : 

This series comprises (a) The Journal of Agricultural Research, in 
which are included scientific and technical articles giving the results of 
investigations of scientific experiments by the Department. The 
Journal is published weekly, and is distributed free only to agricultural 
colleges, technical schools, experiment station libraries, State universi- 
ties. Government depositories, and to such institutions as make suit- 
able exchanges with the Department. Further distribution is by pur- 
chase from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing 
Office, the subscription price being $3.00 a year. The Journal is royal 
octavo in size, and varies from 20 to 48 pages. (6) Experiment Station 
Record. Published monthly and contains abstracts and comments on 
the scientific work bearing on agriculture issued by the agricultural 
experiment stations and other institutions. It is distributed free to 
persons engaged in scientific investigations of agricultural subjects, 
libraries of experiment stations, agricultural colleges, and collaborators 
and cooperators with a Department. Miscellaneous applicants may 
procure it by purchase from the Superintendent of Documents, the 
subscription price being $1.00 a volume, two volumes being issued a 
year, or 15 cents per single copy, (c) The Monthly Crop Report, 
issued according to law. It contains statistics with regard to condi- 
tion, production, and yield of crops, and the production and value of 
farm animals. It is quarto in size, contains 8 to 12 pages, and is sent 
to all who are interested, (d) The Weekly News Letter. A weekly 
publication consisting of from 4 to 8 pages. Published for the informa- 
tion of the employees of the Department, and sent to correspondents 
of the Department. It can be purchased from the Superintendent of 
Documents, who has it for sale at 50 cents a year, (e) The Monthly 
List of Publications. A four-page leaflet, issued after the first of each 



Appendix 475 

month. It contains a list by numbers and titles of the publications 
issued during the preceding month. It gives the title, author, and 
number of pages of each publication, and the price at which it may be 
obtained from the Superintendent of Documents after the Department's 
supply is exhausted, together with a short sketch describing the char- 
acter of the bulletin and the section of the country to which it is particu- 
larly applicable. It is sent free to all who apply for it. (/) The 
Monthly Weather Review. This is a quarto-sized publication, con- 
sisting of 12 numbers to the volume, and is for sale by the Superintend- 
ent of Documents, the subscription price being $2,50 a year. 
Congressional Publications : 

These publications are required by law to be printed, and comprise 
for the Department of Agriculture (a) The Annual Report of the Secre- 
tary, which is for free distribution as long as, the supply lasts, (6) An- 
nual Reports of the various Bureaus, Divisions, and Offices, printed 
primarily for the information of Congress, the edition being small, and 
there is little miscellaneous distribution, (c) The Yearbook. This 
is an octavo publication, containing articles of the magazine type, 
describing some feature of the work of the Department ; it comprises 
from 600 to 800 pages ; the edition is 500,000 copies, of which 470,000 
are for distribution by Senators, Representatives, and Delegates in 
Congress ; 30,000 copies being allotted to the Department, which are 
distributed principally to its correspondents and collaborators. It 
is for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, at from $.75 to $1.00 
a copy, the price varying different years, (d) Reports of Experiment 
Stations. Comprises a review of the work of the Experiment Stations. 
It is octavo in size and the number of pages varies from 300 to 500. 
The principal distribution is to Stations and libraries, (e) Report on 
Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils. An octavo volume, compris- 
ing from 1500 to 1800 pages. It is made up of reports of soil surveys 
of different localities, issued as soon as prepared, which are afterward 
included in the full report. The full report is distributed only to li- 
braries, while the advance sheets of these soil surveys are distributed 
free as long as the supply lasts, the Department's edition being only 
1000 of each. 
Farmers' Bulletin : 

This series consists of practical, concise, and specific information 
on matters relating to country life, the average size being 16 pages, al- 
though when occasion requires, the number of pages is increased or 
decreased. The subjects discussed in these bulletins are handled in 
such a way that the statements are practically in the nature of formulas, 
and they are prepared as far as possible to apply to specific sections of 



476 



Appendix 



the country, and are designed to be of practical use to the reader. 
There is a special appropriation for printing these bulletins, four-fifths 
of all of the number printed being distributed upon the orders of Sena- 
tors, Representatives, and Delegates in Congress, leaving one-fifth for 
distribution by the Department. The Department distributes its 
allotment free as long as the supply lasts, but so great is the demand for 
them that it is impossible to meet it, with the result that it is often 
necessary to refer applicants to the Superintendent of Documents. 



PUBLISHERS OF AGRICULTURAL BOOKS 



Name 

The Macmillan Company. 
Ginn & Company. 
Orange Judd Company. 
American Book Company. 
Bobbs-Merrill Company. 
Chas. Scribner's Sons. 
Small, Maynard & Company. 
D. C. Heath & Company. 
Webb Publishing Company. 
John Wiley & Sons. 
Row, Peterson & Company. 
Doubleday, Page & Company. 
Kenyon Publishing Company. 
The Torch Press. 
G. M. Parker, Publisher. 

D. Appleton & Company. 
Sanders Publishing Company. 
Chicago University Press. 

J. B. Lippincott Company. 

E. P. Dutton & Company. 
Lyons and Carnahan Company. 

The University Cooperative Company. 

Sturgis & Walton Company. 

Houghton Mifflin Company. 

A. C. McClurg & Company. 

The A. I. Root Company. 

The Cyphers Incubator Company. 

Cassell & Company, Ltd. 

Henry Holt & Company. 



Address 

New York, N. Y. 
Boston, Mass. 
New York, N. Y. 
New York, N.Y. 
Indianapolis, Ind. 
New York, N. Y. 
New York, N. Y. 
New York, N. Y. 
St. Paul, Minn. 
New York, N. Y. 
New York, N. Y. 
New York, N. Y. 
Des Moines, Iowa. 
Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 
Taylorville, 111. 
New York, N. Y. 
Chicago, 111. 
Chicago, 111. 
Philadelphia, Pa.. 
New York, N. Y. 
Chicago, 111. 
Madison, Wis. 
New York, N. Y. 
Boston, Mass. 
Chicago, 111. 
Medina, Ohio. 
Buffalo, N. Y. 
London, England. 
New York, N. Y. 



Appendix 



477 



Name 
P. Blakiston Sons & Company. '• 
B. F. Johnson Publishing Company. 
Whitcomb and Barrows. 
Comstock Publishing Company. 
Teachers College. 

The Century Company. 

Rand, McNally & Company. 

The Home Correspondence School. 

Forbes & Company. 

A. Flanagan Company. 

Harper & Brothers. 

Silver, Burdett & Company. 

G. P. Putnam's Sons. 

Wilmer Atkinson Company. 

Royal Dixon. 

Frederick A. Stokes. 

Fruit Grower and Farmer. 

Reliable Poultry Journal. 

Farm Poultry Publishing Company. 

International Harvester Company. 

R. M. McBride & Co. 

W. B. Saunders Co. (Vet. Books). 

International Correspondence Schools. 



Address 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Richmond, Va. 
Boston, Mass. 
Ithaca, N. Y. 
Columbia University, New 

York, N. Y. 
New York, N. Y. 
Chicago, 111. 
Springfield, Mass. 
Chicago, 111. 
Chicago, 111. 
New York, N. Y. 
Chicago, 111. 
New York, N. Y. 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
New York, N. Y. 
New York, N. Y. 
St. Joseph, Mo. 
Quincy, 111. 
Boston, Mass. 
Chicago, 111. 
New York, N. Y. 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Scranton, Pa. 



INDEX 



Aberdeen-Angus cattle, 340. 

Accounts, farm, 465. 

Acid soils, 36. 

Acidity of soil corrected by lime, 93. 

soil, testing for, 97. 
Acme harrows, 451. 
Adventitious buds, 12. 
^olian soils, 34. 
Aerobic bacteria in manure, 72. 
Age of horses, determining, 324. 
Agriculture, divisions of, 3. 
Air drainage in fruit culture, 243. 

in soil, 31, 48, 53. 
Alfalfa as forage, 187. 

experiments with, 198. 
Alluvial soils, 33. 
Amber sorghum, 176. 
American potash, 86. 

Merino sheep, 400. 

saddle horses, 312. 
Ammoniacal copper carbonate as a 

fungicide, 247. 
Anaerobic bacteria in manure, 72. 
Animal manure, 67. 

matter in soil, 31. 
Anthers of a blossom, 11. 
Apple-scab, 297. 

tree tent-caterpillar, 265. 
Arabian horses, 313. 
Arithmetic of fertilizers, 89, 92. 
Army-worm in corn, 124. 
Arsenate of lead as an insecticide, 246. 
Arsenite of lime as an insecticide, 246. 
Art, agriculture as an, 2. 
Artificial brooding, 438. 

incubation, 437. 
Ash in plants, 7. 
Ayrshire cattle, 258. 

B 

Babcock milk test, 377. 
Bacon-type swine, 412. 



Bacteria in milk, 382. 

in soil, 31, 49. 

work of, in manure, 72. 
Bailey, L. H., quoted, 256, 279. 
Balanced rations, 289. 
Bark of plants, 8. 
Barley, characteristics of, 153. 

enemies of, 155. 

harvesting of, 154. 

pests, 155. 

planting of, 154. 

soils and climate for, 154. 

uses of, 153. 
Barnyard, covered, use of a, 76. 

manure, 67. 
Basic slag, 86. 
Beef animals, conformation of, 337. 

cattle, breeds of, 337. 

cuts of, 350. 
Beggarweed as green manure, 66. 
Benefits of crop rotation, 59. 
Berkshire swine, 409. 
Bermuda-grass as forage, 172. 
Bitter-rot of fruit, 269. 
Black-rot of sweet potato, 213. 
Blade in grass, 162. 

harrows, 451. 
Blights of white potatoes, 206. 
Boll-weevil, 230. 

-worm, 232. 
Bone-meals as fertilizer, 84. 
Bordeaux mixture as a fungicide, 247. 
Borers, fruit-tree, 268. 
Breaking and training colts, 317. 
Breeds of beef cattle, 337. 

of dairy cattle, 354. 

of chickens, 426. 

of horses, 303. 

of sheep, 392. 

of swine, 409. 
Brooding, artificial, 438. 

natural, 435. 
Broom corn, 174. 
Brome-grass as forage, 172. 
479 



480 



Index 



Bronchos, 315. 
Brown-rot of fruit, 269. 

Swiss cattle, 359. 
Buckwheat as green-manure, 67. 

characteristics of, 157. 

cultural methods, 157. 

harvesting of, 158. 

uses of, 157. 
Bud, definition of, 12. 
Budding, propagation by, 22. 
Bud-moth, 267. 
Buds, specialized, 15. 

use of, in propagation, 22. 
Bulb crops, 279. 

definition of, 15. 
Bulblet, definition of, 15. 
Bur clovers as forage, 189. 

as green-manure, 66. 
Bush-Brown, H. K., quoted, 314. 
By-product feeds, composition of, 291. 



C 



Calcium supplied by lime, 95. 
Calves, grain for, 361. 

hay for, 361. 

milk for, 360. 
Calyx of a flower, 11. 
Cambium layer, 9. 
Canada blue-grass as forage, 170. 

field peas as forage, 193. 
as green-manure, 65. 
Cane-borer, 222. 
Capillary water, 40. 
Carbon disulfide for grain-weevil, 124. 
Carbohydrates in plants, 7. 
Case for storing bottles of seeds, 

180. 
Catching, holding and leading sheep, 

403. 
Cattle, Aberdeen-Angus, 340. 

Ayrshire, 358. 

Brown Swiss, 359. 

Devon, 343. 

Dutch Belted, 359. 

Hereford, 339. 

Holstein-Friesian, 357. 

Jersey, 354. 

Galloway, 341. 

Guernsey, 355. 

Polled Durham, 338. 

Polled Hereford, 340. 



Cattle — Continued. 

Red Poll, 343. 

Shorthorn, 337, 342. 

types of, 335. 
Caulicle of the embryo, 13. 
Cells of plants, 8. 
Cheat in wheat fields, 142. 
Chess in wheat fields, 142. 
Chester White swine, 410. 
Cheviot sheep, 397. 
Chickens, breeds of, 430. 
Chinch-bugs in corn, 124. 

in wheat, 143. 
Chlorophyl, definition of, 10. 
Classes of compounds in plants, 6. 

of sheep, 392. 
Clay, size of particles, 35. 
Clean cultivation of orchards, 259. 
Cleveland Bay horses, 310. 
Club wheat, 133. 
Clydesdale horses, 304. 
Cockle in wheat fields, 142. 
Codlin-moth, 246. 
Cole crops, 279. 
Collection of grass seed, making a, 

179. 
CoUuvial soils, 33. 
Colorado potato-beetle, 205. 
Colts, breaking and training, 317. 
Commercial fertilizers, amount spent 
for, 81. 
use of , 80. 
Common wheat, 133. 
Complete flowers, 10. 
Composition of milk, 375. 
Compounds, definition of, 6. 
Concentrates for dairy cows, 365. 
Conditions necessary for germination, 

27. 
Conformation of dairy cattle, 253. 
Contact insecticides, 246. 
Copper sulfate solution as an insecti- 
cide, 247. 
Corm, definition of, 16. 
Corn-and-cotton planters, 455. 

-binder, 117. 

characteristics of, 125. 

climate for, 112. 

cultivation of land for, 116. 

dent, 100. 

ear- worm, 123. 

enriching soils for, 112. 



Index 



481 



Corn — Continued. 

flint, 100. 

for silage, 103. 

harvesting of, 117. 

-husker-and-shredder, 119. 

Indian, or maize, 98. 

judging, 126. 

pests, 120. 

planter, 114, 129. 

planting, 113. 

pod, 102. 

pop-, 101. 

preparation of land for, 112. 

-producing localities, 99. 

root-louse, 121. 

root-worm, 120. 

scoring of, 126. 

seed, selection and care of, 104. 

selection of variety of, 103. 

-smut, 124. 

soils for, 112. 

soft, 103. 

stover, composition of, 293. 

sweet, 102. 

types of, 100. 

uses of, 103. 
Corolla of flower, 11. 
Cotswold sheep, 399. 
Cotton, characteristics of, 222. 

cultivating of, 230. 

fertilizers for, 226. 

harvesting of, 230. 

long-staple, 225. 

pests of, 230. 

planting of, 228. 

rotations with, 227. 

scoring and judging of, 238. 

sea-island, 225. 

soils for, 226. 

short-staple, 224. 

types of, 224. 

upland, 222. 

uses of, 225. 

-wilt, 232. 
Cottonseed meal as fertilizer, 83. 
Cotyledon of embryo, 13. 
Cow manure, characteristics of, 69. 
Cowpeas as forage, 191. 

as green-manure,' 64. 
Cows on pasture, 362. 

water and salt for, 368. 
Cream separator, 382. 



Crimson clover as forage, 186. 

as green-manure, 62. 
Crop rotation, benefits of, 59. 

exercise on, 78. 
Cropping system, planning a, 465. 
Crown, division of, in propagation, 15. 
Crude-fiber, definition of, 8. 
Culm of grass, 162. 
Cultivation of corn, 116. 

cotton, 230. 

sugar-cane, 221. 

white potatoes, 203. 
Cultivators, kinds of, 452. 
Cumulose soils, 32. 
Curing of tobacco, 235. 
Cuttings, hardwood stem, 18. 

heel, 18. 

herbaceous, 16. 

mallet, 18. 

root, 19. 

simple, 18. 
Cutworms, 122. 



D 



Dairy calf, care of, 359. 

breeds of, 350. 

cattle, conformation of, 353. 

cows, feeding of, 363. 

judging and scoring of, 371. 
soiling crops for, 363. 
stables for, 369. 
Dairying, importance of, 375. 
Darnel in wheat fields, 142. 
Denitrification in soil, 49. 
Dent corn, 100. 
Devon cattle, 343. 
Digestible nutrients of feeds, 296. 
Digestibility of feed, 295. 
Dioecious plants, 11. 
Disc harrows, 450. 

plows, 448. 
Distances for planting fruit-trees, 256. 
Distillate oils as insecticides, 246. 
Division, propagation by, 15. 
Draft breeds, 303. 

horses, 300. 
Drainage, soil, 46. 
Dried blood as fertilizer, 83. 
Dual-purpose cattle, 337, 342. 
Duroc- Jersey swine, 411. 
Durra sorghum, 178. 



482 



Index 



Durum wheat, 133. 
Dutch Belted cattle, 359. 

E 

Early blight of white potatoes, 206. 

Ear-rot of corn, 125. 

Ear-worm, corn, 123. 

Eckles, C. H., quoted, 362. 

E?g production, feeding for, 438. 

Einkorn, 133. 

Elaboration of plant-food, 10. 

Element, definition of, 6. 

Embryo of seed, 13. 

Emmer, 113. 

Epidermis of plants, 8. 

Ergot in rye, 152. 

Ether-extract, definition of, 8. 

Evaporation losses in soil, 42. 



Farm accounts, 465. 

animals, feeding of, 287. 

choice of the, 462. 

equipment, kinds of, 463. 

-garden, 280. 

labor, 464. 

machinery, 443, 445. 

management, scope of, 461. 

manure, 67. 

possibilities, 4. 

products, marketing of, 466. 

records, 466. 

tenancy, 463. 

tractors, 458. 
Farming as an occupation, 462. 
Fat in plants, 7. 
Feeding beef cattle, 346. 

dairy cows, 362. 

farm animals, 287. 

horses, 321. 

importance of, 287. 

poultry, 438. 

sheep, 401. 

swine, 414. 
Feed, cost of, 295. 

digestibility of, 295. 

effect on digestion, 295. 
Feeds, function of, 288. 

kinds of, 290. 

palatability of, 294. 
Fermentation in manure, 71. 
Fertility, soil, 55. 



Fertilization in flowers, 11. 
Fertilizer equivalents, 90. 
Fertilizer laws, 88. 
Fertilizers, arithmetic of, 89, 92. 

commercial, use of, 80. 

for corn, 112. 

for cotton, 226. 

for sugar-cane, 219. 

from atmosphere, 84. 

home-mixed, 90, 97. 

mixed, 88. 

nitrogenous, 82. 

phosphatic, 84. 

potassic, 86. 
Fertilizing for sweet potatoes, 208. 

for white potatoes, 202. 
Field peas as green-manure, 65. 

as forage, 193. 
Fields, laying out the, 463. 
Filament of flower, 11. 
Fine-wool sheep, 339. 
Fish-scrap as fertilizer, 83. 
Flea-beetle on white potato, 206. 
Flint corn, 101. 

Flooding system of irrigation, 46. 
Flowers, function of, 10. 

parts of, 11. 
Fodder pulling, 119. 
Formation of soil, 32. 
French Coach horses, 309. 
Fruit-culture, air drainage in, 243. 

-growing, chapter on, 241. 

harvesting of, 260. 

plants, pests of, 261. 

soils for, 242. 

trees, planting of, 256. 

trees, pruning of, 243. 

trees, spraying of, 246. 
Fruits, classification of, 242. 
Fungi, propagation of, 12. 
Fungicides for spraying, 246. 
Fungous pests of barley, 155. 

corn, 124. 

cotton, 232. 

fruit, 269. 

oats, 150. 

rye, 152. 

sugar-cane, 222. 

sweet, potato, 213. 

wheat, 143. 

white potato, 206. 
Furrow irrigation, 46. 



Index 



483 



Galloway cattle, 341. 
Gang plows, 448. 
Garden, farm-, 280. 
Garlic in wheat fields, 142. 
Gay, C. W., quoted, 312. 
German Coach horses, 309. 
Germination, conditions for, 14. 

testing seed corn for, 107. 
Germ of seed, 13. 
Glacial soils, 34. 
Gooseneck sorghums, 176. 
Grafts in propagation, 20. 
Grafting wax, 28. 
Grain-binder, 139. 

-cradle, 140. 

-drill, 136, 454. 

for calves, 361. 

-header, 140. 

-weevil, 123. 
Grains, composition of, 290. 
Granular soil, 37. 
Grasses, characteristics of, 162. 

for hay and pasture, 163. 

roots of, 179. 

uses of, 163. 
Green crops, composition of, 294. 

-manure, 61, 62, 78. 
Guernsey cattle, 355. 

H 

Hackney horses, 307. 

ponies, 315. 
Hampshire sheep, 395. 

swine, 411. 
Handling manure, 74. 
Hardwood stem cuttings, 18. 
Harper, M. W., quoted, 347. 
Harvester and thresher, 140. 
Harvesting barley, 154. 

buckwheat, 158. 

corn, 117. 

cotton, 230. 

fruit, 260. 

grass crops, 164, 

rice, 156. 

rye, 152. 

sugar-cane, 221. 

tobacco, 235. 

wheat, 139. 

white potatoes, 205. 



Hays, composition of, 292. 
Hay-forks, 168, 457. 
Hay, grasses for, 168. 

-loaders, 167, 457. 

-rack, 167. 

-rake, 166, 456. 

-stacker, 168, 457. 

-sling, 168, 457. 

-tedders, 166, 457. 
Heavy-harness breeds, 307. 
horses, 301. 

soils, 36. 
Heel cuttings, 18. 
Hellebore as an insecticide, 246. 
Herbaceous cuttings, 16. 
Hereford cattle, 339. 
Hessian fly, 143. 
Hog cholera, 415. 

manure, 69. 

-raising, regions for, 413. 

-lot, sanitation in, 414. 
Hogs, mineral matter and tonic for, 

420. 
Holden, P. G., quoted, 105, 120. 
Kolstein-Friesian cattle, 357. 
Hoof-and-horn meal fertilizer, 83. 
Horse manure, 68. 
Horses, American saddle, 312. 

Arabian, 313. 

Belgian, 306. 

Cleveland Bay, 310. 

Clydesdale, 304. 

determining age of, 324. 

draft, 300. 

French Coach, 309. 

German Coach, 309. 

Hackney, 307. 

heavy -harness, 301. 

light-harness, 302. 

Percheron, 303. 

saddle, 302. 

Shire, 305. 

soundness in, 323. 

Standard-bred, 310. 

Suffolk, 307. 

Thoroughbred, 311. 

time to water, 321. 

types of, 300. 
Humid soils, 36. 
Humus, benefits of, 31. 
Hygroscopic water, 39. 
Hypocotyl of embryo, 13. 



484 



Index 



Incomplete flowers, 10. 
Incubation, artificial, 437. 

natural, 432. 
Indian corn, see Corn. 

ponies, 315. 
Insecticides for spraying, 246. 
Insect pests of barley, 155. 

corn, 120. 

cotton, 230. 

fruit, 261. 

oats, 150. 

rye, 152. 

sugar-cane, 222. 

sweet potato, 213. 

wheat, 143. 

white potato, 205. 
Internode, definition of, 10. 
Iron sulfate to combat wild mustard, 

142. 
Irrigation in rice culture, 156. 

of soil, 44. 



Japan clover, 193. 
Jersey cattle, 354. 
Judging beef cattle, 349. 

corn, 126. 

cotton, 238. 

dairy cows, 371. 

draft horses, 327. 

light horses, 330. 

poultry, 441. 

sheep, 404. 

swine, 421. 
June bugs, pest of corn, 122. 



Kafir sorghum, 177. 
Kainit, 86. 

Kaoliang sorghum, 178. 
Kentucky blue-grass, 109. 
Kerosene emulsion as an insecticide, 
246, 274. 



Labor income on farms, 463. 
Lacustrine soils, 33. 
Ladd, C. E., quoted, 465. 
Lamon, Harry M., quoted, 437. 
Langworthy, C. F., quoted, 321. 



Lard-type swine, 407. 

Large Yorkshire swine, 412. 

Late blight of white potatoes, 206. 

Lateral buds, 12. 

Layers, use of in propagation, 19. 

Leaching in manure, 71. 

in soil, 40. 
Leaf blister-mite, 267. 
Leaves, function of, 10. 
Legumes as green-manure, 62. 

as forage, 184. 

as soil improvers, 50. 

benefited by lime, 94. 

characteristics of, 182. 

roots of, 198. 

uses of, 183. 
Leicester sheep, 398. 
Light-harness breeds, 310. 
horses, 302. 

soils, 36. 
Ligule of grasses, 162. 
Lime, as an aid for legumes, 94. 

forms of, 95. 

for soil improvement, 93. 

influence of, 53. 

quantity of, to apply, 96. 

sulfur as a fungicide, 247. 

sulfur as an insecticide, 246. 

sulfur, making of, 271. 

sulfur, testing of, 273. 
Lincoln sheep, 399. 
Linseed meal, 84. 
Live-stock, relation of to soil fertility, 

61. 
London purple as an insecticide, 246. 
Long-staple cotton, 225. 

-wool sheep, 398. 
Loose smut of wheat, 143. 
Losses in manure, 73. 

M 

Maize, or Indian corn, 98. 
Mallet cuttings, 18. 
Manure, benefits of, 67. 

barnyard, 67. 

farm, 67, 69, 78. 

green, 61, 62. 

kinds of farm, 68. 

losses in, 71, 73, 74. 

pit, construction of, 75. 

methods of applying, 77. 

stable, 67. 



Index 



485 



Marine soils, 33. 

Market classes and grades of beef 
cattle, 344. 

classes and grades of horses and 
mules, 315. 

gardening, 278. 
Marketing of farm products, 466. 
May beetle, pest of corn, 122. 
Meadow-fescue, 172. 
Middle-wool sheep, 392. 
Milk, composition of, 375. 

for calves, 360. 

for fat, testing of, 377. 
Millets as forage, 173. 
Milo sorghum, 178. 
Mineral matter, for hogs, 420. 

of soil, 31. 
Miscible oils as insecticides, 246. 
Monoecious plants, 11. 
Montgomery, E. G., quoted, 163. 
Mowers, 164, 456. 
Mulches, artificial, 43. 

kinds of, 43. 

natural, 43. 
Mumford, H. W., quoted, 344. 
Muriate of potash, 86. 
Mustard in wheat fields, 142. 
Mutton and lamb, cuts of, 405. 

N 

Natural brooding, 435. 

incubation, 432. 

propagation in fruit plants, 17. 
Nitrate of soda, 82. 
Nitrification in soil, 49. 
Nitrogen, effects of, 87. 

-free extract, 8. 

need of, in soil, 56. 
Nitrogenous fertilizers, 82. 
Node, definition of, 10. 
Non-saccharine sorghum, 177. 
Nursery stock, purchasing of, 255. 

trees, trimming of, 257. 
Nutrients, digestible, in feeds, 296. 



O 

Oats, characteristics of, 
enemies of, 150. 
harvesting of, 150. 
kinds of, 148. 
planting of, 149. 



147. 



Oats — Continued. 

side, 148. 

soils and climate for, 149. 

spreading, 148. 

spring, 148. 

winter, 148. 
Obrecht, R. C, quoted, 316. 
One-horse cultivators, 452. 
Open-ditch drainage, 47. 
Orange sorghums, 176. 
Orchard-grass, 171. 
Organic matter of soil, 31. 
Osmosis in plants, 9. 
Ovary of flower, 11. 
Overhead irrigation, 44. 
Ovules of flower, 11. 
Oxford sheep, 396. 



PapilionaceflB sub-family of plants, 

182. 
Paris green as an insecticide, 246. 
Pasteurization of milk, 385. 
Pasture, grasses for, 168. 
Peanuts, culture of, 194. 
Percheron horses, 303. 
Percolation, reducing losses of water 

due to, 42. 
Perennial vegetable crops, 279. 
Pests, of corn, 120. 

cotton, 230. 

fruit plants, 261. 

oats, 150. 

rye, 152. 

sugar-cane, 222. 

sweet potatoes, 213. 

wheat, 143. 

white potatoes, 205. 
Petals of flower, 11. 
Phosphate, from iron furnaces, 86. 

rocks, 85. 

fertilizers, 84. 
Phosphorus, effects of, 87. 

need of, in soil, 56. 
Photosynthesis, definition of, 10. 
Pistillate flowers, 11. 
Plant-food, leaching of, 58, 59. 

effect of lime on, 94. 

in soil, 31, 56. 
Plant-lice, on fruit-trees, 266. 

study, 5. 



486 



Index 



Planting barley, 154. 

buckwheat, 158. 

corn, 113. 

cotton, 228. 

fruit trees, 256. 

grass seed, 164. 

oats, 149. 

rice, 156. 

rye, 152. 

sugar-cane, 220. 

sweet potatoes, 209. 

table, for vegetables, 282. 

wheat, 136. 

white potatoes, 202. 
Plows, disc, 448. 

gang, 448. 

kinds of, 445. 

subsoil, 449. 

sulky, 448. 

walking, 445. 
Plum-curculio, 267. 
Plumule of the embryo, 13. 
Pod corn, 103. 
Pop-corn, 101. 
Poisonous insecticides, 246. 
Poland-China swine, 409. 
Polish wheat, 113. 
Polled Durham cattle, 338. 

Hereford cattle, 340. 
Pollen of a flower, 11. 
Pollination of flowers, 12. 
Ponies, breeds of, 314. 

Broncho, 315. 

definition of, 303. 

Hackney, 315. 

Indian, 315. 

Shetland, 314. 

Welsh, 315. 
Potash, American, 86. 

salts from Germany, 86. 
Potassic fertilizers, 86. 
Potassium, effects of, 88. 

need of, in soil, 56. 

sulfide as a fungicide, 247. 
Potato beetle, Colorado, 205. 
Potatoes (see white potatoes and sweet 

potatoes). 
Potatoes, kinds of, 200. 
Potato blight, 206. 

scab, 207. 

planters, 456. 
Pot-herb crops, 279. 



Poultry houses, 432. 

manure, 69. 

types of, 426. 
Poulard wheat, 133. 
Production of sanitary milk, 383. 
Propagation, artificial, 18. 

by division, 15, 29. 

by grafts, 20. 

by hardwood stem cuttings, 19. 

by herbaceous cuttings, 16. 

by layers, 19. 

by rootstocks, 17. 

by seeds, 13. 

by specialized buds, 15. 

by spores, 12. 

by tillers, 17. 

of sugar-cane, 221. 

of sweet potatoes, 209. 
Protein in plants, 7. 
Pruning of fruit trees, 243. 
Puddled soil structure, 36. 
Pulse crops, 279. 
Purity of grass seeds, 179. 

legume seeds, 198. 



Radicle of embryo, 13. 
Rag-doll seed corn tester, 110. 
Rambouillet sheep, 401. 
Rations, balanced, 289. 

for beef cattle, 346. 
dairy cattle, 366. 
horses, 323. 
poultry, 438. 
Reaper, self-rake, 139. 
Records, farm, 466. 
Red-cane, 222. 

clover, 62, 184, 198. 

Poll cattle, 343. 
Redtop, 170 

Region for farming, choice of, 462. 
Residual soils, 32. 
Rice, characteristics of, 155. 

harvesting of, 156. 

planting of, 156. 

uses of, 155. 
Ridging land for cotton, 229. 
Roberts, John W., quoted, 250. 
Root-borer of sweet potato, 213. 
Root crops, 279. 
Root cuttings, 19. 



Index 



487 



Root-disease of sugar-cane, 222. 

-hairs, function of, 9. 

-louse, corn, 120 

-rot of cotton, 233. 

stocks in propagation, 17. 

-worms, 120. 

fleshy, in propagation, 16. 
Roots for dairy cows, 304. 

functions of, 9. 
Rotation, crop, benefits of, 59, 

exercise on, 78. 
Rotations with cotton, 227. 
Roughages for dairy cows, 365. 
Run-off, reducing loss due to, 41. 
Rust, grain, 146. 
Rye, as green-manure, 67. 

characteristics of, 151. 

-grasses as forage, 171. 

pests, 152. 

planting of, 152. 

uses of, 151. 



Saccharine sorghums, 175. 
Saddle horses, 302. 

-horse breeds, 311. 
Salad crops, 279. 
Salt for cows, 368. 
Sand, size of particles, 35. 
Sanitary milk, 383. 
Sanitation in calf pens, 361. 

hog lots, 414. 
San Jose scale, 261. 
Sawdust box seed corn tester, 107. 
Scab of white potatoes, 207. 
Schedules, spray, 247. 
Schutt, M. A., Table by, 73. 
Science, agriculture as a, 2. 
Score-card for beef cattle, 349. 

corn, 128. 

cotton plant, 238. 

dairy cattle, 372. 

dairy farm, 389. 

draft horses, 327. 

fat hogs, 421. 

light horses, 331. 

mutton sheep, 404. 

utility poultry, 441. 
Scoring beef cattle, 349. 

corn, 126. 

cotton, 238. 

dairy cows, 371. 



Scoring — Continued. 

dairy farms, 389. 

draft horses, 327. 

poultry, 441. 

sheep, 404. 

swine, 421. 
Sea-island cotton, 225. 
Sedentary soils, 32. 
Seed corn exercises, 126. 

selection and care, 104. 

testers, 107, 110. 

testing for germination, 107. 
Seed potatoes, size of, 202. 
Seed-tester, how to make a, 27. 
Seeds, quality to purchase, 15. 

storing of, 14. 
Semi-arid soils, 36. 

-humid soils, 36. 
Sepals of a flower, 11. 
Separate-grained soil structure, 36. 
Separation of cream from milk, 382, 

386. 
Sheath of grass, 162. 
Sheep, American Merino, 400. 

Cheviot, 397. 

classes of, 392. 

Cotswold, 399. 

Delaine Merino, 401. 

feeds for, 401. 

fine-wool, 399. 

Hampshire, 395. 

-killing dogs, 402. 

Leicester, 398. 

Lincoln, 399. 

long-wool, 398. 

manure, 69. 

middle- wool, 392. 

Oxford, 396. 

Rambouillet, 401. 

Scoring and judging, 404. 

Southdown, 392. 

Shropshire, 393. 
Shepherd dogs, 402. 
Shetland ponies, 314. 
Shire horses, 305. 
Shorthorn cattle, 337, 342. 
Short-staple cotton, 224. 
Shropshire sheep, 393. 
Silage, corn for, 103. 

for dairy cows, 363. 

stage to cut corn for, 120. 
Silt, size of particles of, 35. 



488 



Index 



Simple cuttings, 18. 
Smut, corn, 124. 

grain, 143, 159. 
Sod culture of orchards, 259. 
Soft corn, 102. 
Soil, acidity, 93, 97. 

classification of, 32. 

condition improved by lime, 94. 

constituents, 31, 52. 

drainage, 46. 

fertility, 55. 

formation of, 32. 

irrigation of, 44. 

mulches, 43, 53. 

structure, 37. 

texture, 34. 

types of, 52. 

water in, 38. 

washing, 59. 
Soiling crops, 363. 
Soils, alluvial, 33. 

arid, 36. 

for barley, 154. 

for corn, 112. 

for cotton, 226. 

for fruit, 242. 

for grasses, 163. 

for oats, 149. 

for rice, 156. 

for rye, 152. 

for sugar-cane, 219. 

for sweet potatoes, 208. 

for vegetables, 278. 

for wheat, 135. 

for white potatoes, 201. 

heavy, 36. 

humid, 36. 

light, 36. 

sedentary, 32. 

semi-arid, 36. 

semi-humid, 36. 

structure of, 36. 

transported, 32. 
Solanaceous crops, 279. 
Sorghum, amber, 176. 

description of, 174. 

gooseneck, 176. 

non-saccharine, 177. 

orange, 176. 

saccharine, 175. 

sumac, 176. 
Soundness in horses, 323. 



Southdown sheep, 392. 
Soybeans, as forage, 192. 

as green-manure, 64. 
Spacing of tobacco plants, 234. 
Spelt, 133. 

Spike-tooth harrows, 451. 
Spores, propagation by, 12. 
Spraying, equipment for, 247. 

of fruit trees, 246. 
Spray schedules, 247. 
Spring-tooth harrows, 451. 
Stable manure, 67. 
Stables for dairy cows, 369. 
Stall manure, 67. 
Staminate flowers, 11. 
Standard-bred horses, 310. 
Stems, function of, 10. 
Stigma of flower, 11. 
Stinking smut of wheat, 143. 
Stomata, 9. 
Storing, of seeds, 14. 

sweet potatoes, 212. 

white potatoes, 205. 
Straddle-row cultivators, 452. 
Straws, composition of, 293. 
Structure of soils, 36. 
Style of flower, 11. 
Sub-irrigation, 45. 
Subsoil, definition of, 31. 

plows, 449. 
Suffolk horses, 307. 
Sugar-cane, characteristics of, 217. 

cultivation of, 221. 

fertilizers for, 219. 

harvesting of, 221. 

pests of, 222. 

planting of, 220. 

soils for, 219. 

uses of, 219. 
Sulfate of ammonia, 82. 

potash, 86. 
Sulfur dust as an insecticide, 247. 
Sulky plows, 448. 
Sumac sorghums, 176. 
Surface soil, definition of, 31. 
Sweep-rake, 167. 
Sweet corn, 102. 

potato slips, 209. 

potatoes, cultural methods for, 212. 
soils for, 208. 
description of, 207. 
Swine, bacon-type, 412. 



Index 



489 



Swine — Continued. 
Berkshire, 409. 
Chester White, 410. 
Duroc- Jersey, 411. 
feeds for, 414. 
Hampshire, 411. 
Large Yorkshire, 412. 
lard-type, 407. 
Poland-China, 409. 
scoring and judging, 421. 
Tamworth, 413. 



Tall oat-grass, 172. 
Tamworth swine, 413. 
Tankage, description of, 83. 
Teaching a calf to drink milk, 360. 
Terminal buds, 12. 
Terracing of fields, 59. 
Testers for seed corn, 107, 110. 
Testing grain seeds, 159. 

grass seeds, 179. 

legume seeds, 198. 

milk for fat, 377, 387. 

seed corn, 126. 

the corn-planter, 115. 
Texture of soil, 34. 
Thomas slag, 86. 
Thoroughbred horses, 311. 
Threshing machines, 140, 457. 
Tillering, of grains, 159. 

grasses, 179. 
Tillers in propagation, 17. 
Time to water horses, 321. 
Timothy as forage, 169. 
Tobacco, classes of, 233. 

curing of, 235. 

-growing districts, 233. 

harvesting of, 235. 

preparations as insecticides, 246. 

seedlings, 234. 

spacing of plants, 234. 
Tonic for swine, 420. 
Topping, of corn, 119. 

of tobacco, 235. 
Tractors, farm, 458. 
Training of colts, 317. 
Transplanters, 456. 
Transported soils, 32. 
Truck farming, 278. 
Tuber crop, 279. 

definition of, 16. 



Type of farming, choice of, 462. 
Types of horses, 300. 

cattle, 334. 

poultry, 426. 

sheep, 392. 

soil, 52. 

swine, 407. 

U 

Underdrainage, 48. 
Uses of barley, 153. 

buckwheat, 157. 

corn, 103. 

cotton, 225. 

grasses, 163. 

legumes, 183. 

oats, 148. 

rice, 155. 

rye, 151. 

sugar-cane, 219. 

sweet potatoes, 207. 

tobacco, 233. 

wheat, 135. 

V 

Van Slyke, L. L., Table by, 70. 

Veal, cuts of, 350. 

Vegetable crops, kinds of, 279. 

growing, 277. 

matter of soil, 31. 
Vegetables, planting table for, 282. 

soils for, 278. 
Velvet beans, 65. 
Vetches as forage, 193. 

as green-manure, 64. 
Vine crops, 279. 

W 

Walking plows, 445. 
Warren, G. F., quoted, 465. 
Water, capillary, 40. 
for cows, 368. 
gravitational, 40. 
hygroscopic, 39. 
in plants, 7, 27. 
soil, control of, 41. 

exercise to explain, 52. 
forms of, 39. 
functions of, 38. 
Waxed-string, how to make, 28. 

-tape, how to make, 28. 
Weeders, 454. 



490 



Index 



Weeds in wheat fields, 142. i 
Weight of grain, bushel, 159. 
Welsh ponies, 315. 
Wheat, bearded, 133. 

beardless, 133. 

characteristics of, 132. 

club, 134. 

common, 134. 

description of classes, 134. 

distribution of, 135. 

Durum, 133. 

harvesting of, 139. 

kinds of, 133. 

pests, 143. 

Polish, 134. 

Poulard, 134. 

rusts, 146. 

seeding of, 136. 



Wheat — Continued, 
soils for, 135. 
spring, 133. 
uses of, 135. 
winter, 133. 
White clover as forage, 187. 
grub on corn, 122. 
potatoes, experiment with, 214. 
harvesting of, 205. 
planting of, 202. 
production of, 201. 
spraying of, 214. 
storing of, 205. 
yields of, 201. 
Williams, C. B., quoted, 226, 228. 
Wire- worm on corn, 122. 
Wood-ashes as fertilizer, 86. 
Woodward, F. E., quoted, 364. 



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cluding poultry, and covering the methods of milk 
testing, fifteen on Plant Propagation and Horticulture ; 
ten on Farm Management. Because of the slip-sheet 
binding, the order of the exercises may be arranged 
to suit the convenience of the class. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 Fifth Avenue. New York 
BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA DALLAS 



BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE 



ON TILLAGE: 

Bailey's Principles of Agriculture $1.25 

King's The Soil 1.50 

King's Irrigation and Drainage 1.60 

Lyon, Fippin and Buckman's Soils : Their Properties and 

Management 1.90 

Roberts's The Fertility of the Land 1.50 

Snyder's Soils and Fertilizers 1.25 

Voorhees's Fertilizers 1,50 

Wheeler's Manures and Fertilizers 1.60 

Widtsoe's Dry Farming 1.50 

ON GARDEN-MAKING: 

Bailey's Garden-Making ^ 1.60 

Bailey's Vegetable Gardening 1.60 

French's How to Grow Vegetables 1.75 

ON FRUIT GROWING, ETC.: 

Bailey's Fruit Growing 1.75 

Bailey's Pruning Manual 2.00 

Card's Bush Fruits 1.75 

Lodeman's Spraying of Plants 1.50 

ON THE CARE OF LIVE STOCK: 

Jordan's The Feeding of Animals 1.75 

Lyon's How to Keep Bees for Profit 1.50 

Mayo's Diseases of Animals 1.75 

Phillips's Beekeeping 2.00 

Valentine's How to Keep Hens for Profit 1.50 

Watson's Farm Poultry 1.50 

ON DAIRY WORK: 

Eckles's Dairy Cattle and Milk Production 1.60 

Snyder's Dairy Chemistry i.oo 

Wing's Milk and Its Products 1.50 

ON PLANT DISEASES: 

O'Kane's Injurious Insects 2.00 

Slingerland and Crosby's Fruit Insects 2.00 

Stevens and Hall's Diseases of Economic Plants 2.00 

ON ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION: 

Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare 1.50 

Green's Law for the American Farmer 1.50 

Hunt's How to Choose a Farm 2.00 

Ogden's Rural Hygiene 1.50 

Roberts's The Farmer's Business Handbook 1.25 

Weld's Marketing of Farm Products 1.60 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York 
BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA DALLAS 



fU6 



